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Dr Ali KILIC Paris
06-05-2008 The
Academy of the Sciences
of Kurdistan
that
the technology on the production, science becomes a decisive factor and more
dynamic development of productive forces. Complexes, because "the times
they are essential to maintain the competitiveness of the economy in crisis,
and both create antagonistic contradictions which" have changes in
technology, knowledge about man in his life, on employment must be
drastically controlled. "
•
organize and monitor the preparatory education to research. Ultimately, the
objectives of the scientific approach of the organization of scientific
knowledge is to answer questions from the scientific environment and
highlight the scientific research units and the links between them.
What
is the relationship established between our scientific and academic level of
development of science and the Conference of the Academy of Sciences after
twenty years of our scientific and academic work?
The
science, scientific and technological revolution have led to deep
differences between the various branches specializing in the manufacture of
products. But gradually as the growing differentiation and that there always
new branches. We see the growing importance of relations between the various
branches and their coordination, which call for a centralized function of
the economy. At the heart of this scientific development instead of science
applied to. all levels of life is crucial. That is why it is necessary to
clarify our classification dialectic of science and the place of information
technology in the scheme we are proposing is a characteristic of science.
_____ and
technical It appeared that if we measured the energy and mass through the
normal units, energy is equal to mass multiplied by the square of the speed
of light -1. In other words E. = ml The
properties of laser-the opportunity to focus on tiny masses of
matter-permit, the leader on a mass thermonuclear (a mixture of deuterium
and tritium), to create the conditions for a thermonuclear reaction
temperature of tens of millions of degrees and density of fuel exceeding
hundreds of times the density of the solid body. This is a promising
direction of establishing a thermonuclear energy. III
The biological sciences The
essential feature of this passage from simple to complex is an integrated
process, we propose the term of fundamentalism to define the orientation of
cognitive science.
The
truth is that "epigenetics respect to the transmission of hereditary
characteristics of each cell type in the same body. Many biological
processes essential for the development and adult life depend phenomena
"epigenetic", ie that different cells and tissues acquire
"identities" different, even if the DNA of each cell is identical.
These identities are kept permanently throughout the life of cells and are
passed on to daughter cells so hereditary. We now know that this is the
chromatin structure which is the identity of this cell, which transmits the
daughter cells within the same lineage. But the structure of different
chromosomal regions is regulated by factors called Polycomb "and"
trithorax. " The Polycomb proteins lead to the formation of structures
condensed and inactive, while proteins trithorax open the chromatin and
allow the DNA to express its genetic information to obtain cellular RNAs and
proteins. We showed that the Polycomb proteins and trithorax can transmit a
hereditary memory states activated and repressed by their target genes. We
seek to understand the mechanisms underlying this memory and their role
during normal development and in the context of the emergence of cancers.
"In other words in the field of Epigenetics regard to the transmission
of hereditary traits that distinguish each type of cell in an organism. Many
biological processes depend on epigenetic components that are capable of
driving different cells in different cells States fate despite the fact that
they share the same DNA sequence. These cellular identities can be
transmitted by cell division, this implies cellulairemémoire the regulation
of DNA in chromatin emballage.Les proteins Polycomb group (PCG) are able to
transmit the cellular memory of silence States of gene expression, while
trithorax group (trxG) proteins, silent struggle with a function of
activation that allows them target
genes to express themselves in the types of cells. Our research
showed that these two groups of proteins can transmit the memory gene
States of expression throughout development and even through meiosis
in Minoo
Rassoulzadegan[27]
and his staff of Inserm Unit 636 "Genetics of normal development and
pathological" *, describe a mode of inheritance which does not comply
with the laws of Mendel. It involves the transfer RNA molecules associated
with the genome - in particular the recently discovered class of microARNs-,
in the head of sperm. This very special heredity was identified in the case
of an epigenetic modification called hereditary paramutation, in mice. The
paramutation used in this work affects a gene essential for development
whose modification can be followed by a change of colour coat. These results
may be closer to work very recent showing the presence of RNA molecules in
the human sperm, and bring about their possible functions of the new
assumptions. The
change is an epigenetic modulation of the expression of genes or groups of
genes which, unlike the mutation does not change in structure (nucleotide
sequence) of DNA. It is nevertheless passed on a stable during cell
division. One of the most studied examples of this kind of variation is the
inactivation of one of the X chromosomes in female mammals. This type of
change is today considered important in various diseases, including cancer. CONCLUSIONS Twenty
years ago before the jury academic and scientific I submitted the following
statement. On
what grounds can we ponder over the nature of science classification and
what links can we establish between the classification and computer science?
Where do the ideas on computer philosophical foundations come from as a base
for the foundation of the Academy of Sciences and of the National Center for
Scientific and Technical Research of Kurdistan? Do these ideas come from an
issue on the historical development of the science classification or do they
come from another methodological or epistemological nature? In other words,
does the history of the philosophy of science need such a theoretical and
philosophical explanation of the issue on the scientific reorganization of
knowledge and its foundations? First, how can the opposition between both
notions constitute a unity, especially with notions that do not stand in the
same context? On one hand science classification is an old issue that goes
back to Aristotle and which was a more philosophical issue than a scientific
one in the Middle Ages, so that is an encyclopedic issue. On the other hand
computer science gets a very varied meaning which has directly no links with
the notions of science classification which are not on the same level. . First,
a prevailing tendency is found among French and European computer scientists
and there is an approach to the definition of "a computer science
"or" computer sciences "or" computer scientific
branches" which is linked to the definition of technology. The computer
scientists of today are looking for the nature of only one science "
(the computer science) and they reject the division of the intellect and the
differentiation of sciences, their detachment from computer technology,
without considering the scientific and technical progress. On one hand this
belief of one science coincides with the positivist philosophy which rejects
its role of «Science of sciences ". On the other hand the tendency
stems from the thought of Marx and developed by Engels, defends the
unification of the human science with the natural science in order to
create one science only.... Under
those conditions, "is there one or several computer sciences"
J.D Warnier asked. Then he added «as far as the axioms and the basic
principles are concerned, there is not an only science ". What are the
differences between «the axioms and the basic principles «of computer
science and those of philosophy? If there are no differences, how can we
study " as many computer branches as we discover branches of the human
activity which need word processing that is to say data processing, not only
as far as applied sciences are concerned but also in the technological
structure of the scientific and computer branches ? How can we tell the
fundamental computer science in general from management computers,
scientific computers, telecomputers, telematics or the computers of
satellites which have different missions? From the computer science
analysis, can we introduce the field the classification of techniques
that is not made any longer according to the products but to the processes
in order to establish links with the science classification ? In other words
the classification was interpreted by the philosophers of the 19th century
like the connection of sciences and it didn't lead to the reduction of
philosophy to an only science as Marx pointed out: «how will natural
science later embrace human sciences as well as human sciences include
natural science, and will there be an only science?"
What will be the function of computer science in the fulfillment of the
scientific combination? Will there be an "only computer science» or
several computer sciences within the process of the realization of the
combination? But we may ponder over the origin of those computer scientists
looking for the nature of an "only science" (computer science) and
who reject the diversification and the differentiation of the computer
scientific branches. Where do they go to? Which tendency of science do they
go to? To an «only science» as Marx suggests or to the «only science»
developed by the neopositivists of the logical positivism? If those
scientists get close to the Marxist conception how will the natural science
embrace the human science? But if they get closer to the neopositivist
doctrine or to the logical positivism what will their function in the
sciences centre be if the human science includes the natural science? Which
criteria allow us to distinguish the logical analysis of the science which
claims to organize the scientific knowledge within the scope of an
"only science"? What is the meaning of the value of an "only
science" for the science philosophy of our century? How can we look for
the philosophical foundations of computer science if there are some
differences between the "axioms and the basic principles" of
computer science and philosophy? First
question:
What is data processing? Is it a science, a technology or various
techniques? What are its aims? If it is considered like a science, is there
one or several computer sciences? What would its function in the science
classification be? If it is considered like a technology and if we define
technology like the science of the scientific and the technical rules of the
production process, then, what is its function as a physical, technical and
mathematical science, in the science classification? What are the
differences between technology in general and computer technology? If it is
considered as a technical whole, what are its connections with science and
the human being? What links can we establish between the science
classification and the various application fields of computer science? What
is the computer science methodology? What are the features of a pattern of
the science classification and computer science? Second
question:
What is classification? What does the science classification mean nowadays?
What are the aims of science? What about their classification) How can they
be in harmony with the numerous human experiences. What is the
specific characteristic of the issue for the human science philosophy ? Third
question: is there a computer science classification? What are the bases of
the various scientific branches of computer science? What links can we
establish between science classification and the scientific and technical
revolution? Fourth
question: What are the prospects of the scientific development for a new
humanistic civilization and what conclusions can we draw? METHODOLOGY For
our philosophical processes, we have used the dialectical method. First, we
have pondered over computer science by developing the logical and
mathematical basis and the linguistic basis of computer science. Then, we
have taken interest in the historical issue of science classification and we
have intended to show the connection between science from the natural rules,
its outcomes and the objective links between the function of the various
sciences within their development and their own changes. Finally, we have
studied the physical chemical and biological science as the basis of the
differentiation of the scientific branches of computer science. We have
analyzed the classic and modern computer system, the dialectical process of
human knowledge in philosophy and computer science (the artificial
intelligence and the foundations of the scientific knowledge) to establish
the links between philosophy and the scientific revolutions and the aspects
of a new conception of humanism in the scope of a new science
classification. What
is data processing is it a science a technology or does it embrace all
techniques and tools? According
to the Academy of Science, data processing is "the science of the
rational processing, especially with automatic information machines
considered as the basis of human knowledge in the technical and social
fields. "This definition provided by the Academy of Science is
our starting point but we have broadened it. First,
computer science is a physical, technical and mathematical science linked to
the second part of the natural science classification. That implies: 1.
Computer science is both a rational processing science and a systematic,
logical and mathematical science. It needs the analysis of the logical and
mathematical basis of computer science (the binary logic and the Boolean
logic) 2.
Computer science is the science of the automatic data processing with
machines and computers. So,
it is both a physical computer science and a technological computer science
that implicates the other scientific branches like telematics or
telecomputers which is linked to the study and the creation of the
components and the electrical and mechanical subset that are part of the
creation of computers. It requires the analysis of the physical and
technological foundations of computer science. 3.
As a science of the rational and automatic analysis of information
considered as the basis of human knowledge and communication computer
science it leads to the creation of several scientific disciplines : the
epistemological computer science, the knowledge engineering, the artificial
intelligence, Experts systems, the survey of the shape, the synthesis of the
word, the interaction between men and machines, the development of the
communication engineering in the field of telecomputers and the computer
technology of satellites. 4.
As an applied science of production, computer s c i e n c e it has some
results as far as the production diversification and the scientific work
division are concerned. So,
we have seen the logical and mathematical foundations of computer science.
The Boolean logic is used in the systematization of the scientific knowledge
in computers as a tool to argue. It is said that this mathematical logic is
also the result of the logical and mathematical thought of Leibniz and that
it is the basis of the philosophical and linguistic ideas developed in Ars
Comniatoria (1666). Then we have divided the historical activity into four
basic periods and we have studied the linguistic foundations of computer
science "from Lavoisier's pictures which express the world into a new
symbolical or expressive chemistry till the sophisticated classifications
from which the living can enter a systematical reason" as Professor
Dagognet wrote. The basic idea of his philosophy deals with the ORDER of
reality and the linked possibility that the scientific knowledge cultivates.
From this point of view we have analyzed the different languages: COBOL,
FORTRAN, List Processing, ALGOL, BASIC, PROLOG, PASCAL. The growth of the
languages suited to computers relatively corresponds to the needs of
society. The scientific improvement based on the fundamental research in
science widens the field of the labor force with the differentiation of the
software technology. So,
we have briefly studied the structure of the computers called digital
computers as opposed to analogical computers. They deal with digital
information that is to say the continuous and discontinuous analogical and
digital information which is the basis of computers classification. This
technology gets a final logic in the material and social practical
experience of the world. Indeed, "technology implies a reflection on
the mode of connection. It is the place of change from the scientific
rationality to the rationality of human science. So technology is the
science of the control of information (especially scientific information)
between men"
Nevertheless there is historically a deep and converse connection in an
explicit and systematic way between technology and science classification.
The most remarkable of these classifications is Ampere's. So what is
classification? What
is classification? In
French, the classification supposes a scientific attention and a theoretical
order, I mean, it is built on a rational knowledge on the classified things
and it allows one to understand them. Classification
is an example of logical process used in science or in practice.
Classifications are made according to the basic characteristics of the
things. Classification emphasizes the similarity and the differences between
things. So, the classification is a cognitive activity whose objective is to
divide up the beings according to their similarity. It is a representation
of the whole systematic knowledge, especially in science, of a system of
divisions and subdivisions. Sometimes, when it is only a matter of
organizing things in a system, we base our divisions conveniently even if
things have no links between one another. Classification
is the share-out of things in several coordinated and subordinated sets. It
is the way to organize concepts according to the connections we want to
emphasize: connection from gender to species, connection from the whole to
the part, genealogical and hierarchical connections and so on ...In the
field we deal with three main kinds of classification. First, there is
statistics, that is to say the automatic classification that allows us to
draw, thanks to algorithm, several partitions according to the individuals.
Then there is the biological classification found by Linne. It is based on
the obvious similarity between species that are placed in the same set. But
this kind of classification is not very common. Finally there is the
classification philosophically speaking. So,
we have considered in detail four main stages in the development of science
and knowledge: the immediate intuition stage, the analysis stage, the
synthesis stage based on the former analysis (the upset object of knowledge
is mentally pieced together in its entity and in its former reality). At the
stage the differentiation of knowledge has been doubly characterized: first,
according to the material object, it is different from the former science;
then, according to the lower form of the nearest movement thanks to which it
is linked to the former science. The characteristics of a science and the
differentiation of its knowledge get objective foundations on each new
science. Such a connection can be made because the lower form of the
movement enters the upper form just as the upper form just as the movement
of a molecule enters the physýcal state of gas (thermodynamics. So, this
dialectical unity of the material movement and of the scientific
knowledge on the real world, constitutes a real basis on which you can build
a model of the dialectical classification of sciences and you can give each
science an accurate definition that can indicate its place in the new sketch
of science classification. For example, the nuclear science is a science you
can deal with at the edge of its often fleeting experimental facts. This
science makes sophisticated materials intervene. The problem posed to the
physicians is the following: which model of the nucleus can we propose to
explain the observations and the experimentation in keeping with the rules
of atomic physics If nuclear physics is a scientific branch of
atomic physics, so, it has given rise to energy and has become
differentiated from the nuclear chemistry and the other scientific branches
of atomic physics. How can we explain the basis of the law of changing from
quantity to quality from a science to another as far as the development of
the basic contradiction is concerned? Will this contradiction lead up to a
new approach of the classification? Which
model of science classification can we propose to the problematical unity of
the scientific knowledge regarding science computer science in keeping with
the nature? Can the atomic model of classification be based on the
dialectical (material is both divisible and continuous and at the same time
and neither of them) and on the dialectical atomic components, and can we
analyze and express any historical experience of science in the unity of the
scientific organization of knowledge? In other words, will this approach
establish the common foundation of the whole fields of knowledge? Explain
the classification of dialectical rules the dialectical contradiction
indivisible and unity of the From
this viewpoint we have tackled the basic principles of science
classification. There are subjective, objective and comparative principles
of science classification. First we have seen the subjective principle in
Bacon, Hobbes, d'Alembert, Diderot as well as the rational classification in
Comte according to the principle of coordination, the natural classification
of science in Andre Marie Ampere. Then we have analyzed science
classification according to the objective principle in Descartes, Gassendi:
the artificial classification in Augustin and Cournot : the
characteristics of the development of science classification in Germany
thanks to Kant, Scheling, Hegel and the logic of the scientific connection
in Marx. Finally we have analysed the dialectical classification based on
the principle of subordination in F.Engels. A
first thought is based on the positivist thinking of A.Comte that allocates
to the "authentic" philosophy a basic function. The positivist
philosophy itself is a special science. The connection between philosophy
and science is typified in this way: "science has its own
philosophy". This connection is due to a definite interpretation of the
role of science in culture. Neopositivism as a modern form of positivism
deprives philosophy of its object without considering anything but the
consciousness of the reality and the everyday or scientific thought.
According to the positivist thinking philosophy is conceivable only because
it is devoted to the analysis of language by which the mind can express
itself. The philosophical analysis does not extend to the objective reality;
it is limited to the immediate experience of language. According to the
representatives of the logical empirism the phrase "philosophy of
science" can apply to the research on philosophical thoughts on science
and to the research on the probabilities of science. According to the
logical positivism a real scientific philosophy is only conceivable as
logical analysis of the scientific language. On one hand this analysis must
suppress "metaphysics" (that is to say the traditional philosophy)
and on the other hand it must analyze the logical structure of the
scientific knowledge to make known the empirically verifiable content of the
scientific arguments and concepts. The objective of this analysis is to
reorganize the scientific knowledge in a "unique science" that
erases the differences between physical, biological and psychological
sciences and so on... We
must notice that the phrase "philosophy of science" is often used
to name the ideas, the criteria and the principles used in the scientific
processes. It is called "presupposition". The
study of the various scientific presuppositions is the subject of what we
call "research on the foundations". This research used scientific
methods such as axiomatization, the construction of models and so on...
According to some authors (especially those who belong to the strict
tradition of neopositivism) the only problems that can be posed about
science are about the foundation. According to them the philosophy of
science is a synonymous with the research on foundations. Only the adding
knowledge is able to embrace the whole intelligible knowledge. The
second thought is based on Hegel's idea of foundation as a category of the
system of the dialectical logic. In
Science of Logic Hegel analyzed the rules and the basic categories of the
dialectical logic and the theory of knowledge. He developed the first system
of the dialectical logic. The only law for Hegel is the law that unifies the
law of gravity and the law of the celestial movement. The standardization of
all the laws in the universal attraction is set down in itself. The
universal attraction only reads that everything is different from
everything; understanding thinks it has found a universal law which is able
to tell the reality in its universality.
By the way Hegel makes unification include in the conception of development
even if he interprets in an idealistic way the main three fields of the
object of the human knowledge: the natural world (nature), the historical
world (society and its history), the spiritual world (human thought).
According to Hegel, foundation is a reflection on essence that is foundation
is the real mediation between essence and oneself. Foundation is first the
absolute foundation as a basis in general; but more precisely it is
determined as a form and a material and it is given contents. As a basic
connection it becomes external to itself and it goes to the conditional
mediation. Foundation
presupposes a condition, but condition presupposes a foundation too. Things
in themselves go to the existence thanks to the mediation of the conditional
connection. Indeed this "unification in an only conception of
development in the natural world as well as in the historical and spiritual
world" is the foundation of the Marxist thinking. It is composed of the
dialectical materialism, the historical materialism, the political economy,
the scientific doctrine of the society which has on one hand overturned the
idealistic doctrine of Hegel and on the other hand it has developed a new
conception of science classification. So,
according to Marx, philosophy can be fulfilled only by the abolition of the
proletariat. With its triumph, the proletariat is nevertheless disappearing
because of the birth of a society with no class and strictly human. For some
people "this society is the real appropriation of the human essence by
men and for men. It is the men return to themselves that is to say to social
men -it is a total and conscious return which concerns all the wealth of the
former development." For the other, it is "a utopia in an
anthropological structure of imaginary." But according to Marx this
society will put an end to the antagonism between men and nature, between
men, between the individual and species, between existence and essence,
between negation and assertion of oneself, between liberty and necessity
thanks to the application of science to production in the process of the
scientific and technological development as a material basis for the
realization of the scientific unification. This new conception of science
classification developed by Engels is a logical generalization and the
reflection of the historical process. Four principles are developed: the
principle of the reflection of the natural stages according to which science
classification reflects the development of the movement within a peculiar
local phenomenon consisting in the successive changes of the various kinds
of energy. Then there is the principle of the development of the movement
and its subset, according to which science classification is analyzed in a
set : first as the reflection of the successive stages of the nature history
and then as the natural science history. Then, as the history of the
logically generalized and summarized natural science, that's to say as the
continuous development of the peculiar sciences. So
we have studied the various forms of the mechanical, kinetic, potential and
electrical energy from a macroscopic and a microscopic angle, and the
caloric and biochemical energy and finally the nuclear energy. With
the study of Pauli's principles on the electrons, we have looked at the
spectrum of the atoms of valency and we used the vector model for the atoms
with dual valency electrons composed of four vectors of orbital momenta 11
and 12 and Spin momenta S 1 and S2. If in a low magnetic field, these
vectors combine giving the vector of the total cinetic momentum of the atom
J, so, we may find the basic structure of science classification from the
elements of the regularity of the atomic spectra of the periodic
classification. This
process gets universalized, science becomes a direct transforming and
productive force and it exerts an influence on natural science as well as on
social science. We replace the vector L (natural science) with the vector S
(social science) and the quantum number J (unity of all the sciences). In
order to note a better interaction between philosophical science and natural
science and between social science and technical science, we will take into
account the basic interactions between the elementary particles of the
nuclear physics that on one hand aims at integrating all the scientific
knowledge and on the other hand it aims at differentiating the scientific
knowledge from techniques. Considering
physics, chemistry and biology as the foundation of the development and the
differentiation of the scientific branches in computer science, I have
examined the peculiar sciences that reflect the forms of the substance and
its movement evolving in an inconsistent way. The inconsistent
characteristic of nature development is revealed in the division of nature
by phenomena that are both linked to natural factors, to the essence of the
natural structure and to the nature of men and society. By the way, we can
clearly explain the correlation between physics and chemistry and between
the transitive sciences. This correlation directly reflects the connections
between the elementary particles and the nucleus and between the atoms and
the molecules. The movement of the elementary particles (protons, neutrons,
positrons, electrons, eutons, hadrons, mesons, leptons and so on...) is part
of the subatomic physics and the nuclear physics but the molecules forming
the bodies are part of the molecular physics (superatomic). So, the way
science is arranged corresponds to The
order of the development of the discrete forms of substance.
Finality.
Like the atoms, the molecules are both part of chemistry
and physics .As far as physics is concerned, the order of the development of
the substance. Finally, like the atoms, the of chemistry and physics. As far
as molecules are anything but a complex system and the result of the atomic
interaction. As far as physics is concerned, molecules are initial
"cells" producing the logical aggregates. From this
epistemological viewpoint we respond to the advocates of the metaphysical
monist approach praising an only science in the field of computer science.
The basic issue of natural science is linked to the development of the
philosophical thought and to the rapid progress of all the branches of the
fundamental research that more and more integrate the fundamental natural
science, technical science and even social science. This integration makes
the transformative function of science increase the command of the natural
forces and it changes science into a direct productive force. Finally it
allows social science to improve and strengthen its organic connection with
natural science. The
place of computer science within our sketch of science classification parts:
natural science First,
I will divide science into two basic and human sciences. 1.
Natural science: -
Physics, technique, mathematics - chemistry, technology, biology - earthly
science 1)
Physics, technique, computing and automation Mathematics:
Indeed, I consider as a physical, technological and mathematical science put
into the first set of the natural science classification. Then, I will
consider the classical science (the positive computer science, the computer
science, the systematic and logical science) and the physical and
technological computer analytical computer science (the methodological
computer science and the applied computer science). The
contemporary computer science is divided into: -
The computerized management -
The computerized medicine -
The biocomputer science -
The computerized industry - robotics -
Telematics -
Telecomputers -
The scientific computer and the satellites computer science -
The nuclear computer science and astrophysics I
consider the mathematical science with its subdivisions (mathematics,
physics, logical mathematics, applied mathematics and so on...) behind
computer science. Finally I consider physics within the set of the physical,
technical and mathematical science 1.3
Physics roughly speaking 1.4
Atomic, subatomic and superatomic physics 1.5
The nuclear physics 1.6
The physics on plasma 1.7 the quanta physics 1.8
The high energy physics 1.9 the basic particles physics 1.10 the
contemporary physics (optics, spectroscopy, thermodynamics, the theory of
magnetism, electricity, electronics, radio and radioactivity) 1.11
Mechanics (undulatory) 1.12
The physical and technical science of energy 1.13
The physical and technical science of mechanics and the control process
(cybernetics and the management process) 2)
Chemistry, technology, biology: First, I will divide chemistry into two main
parts : the organic chemistry and the non organic chemistry. Then, following
the analysis made page 323 of this research, I have made the following
subdivisions: 2.1 chemistry and technics 2.2
The physical chemistry and the technology of the inorganic substances 2.3
biochemistry, biophysics, the chemistry of the active physiologic
compounding (the chemistry of the complex compounding) 2.4
electrochemistry and radiochemistry 2.5 the chemical physics 2.6
The cinetical chemistry 2.7
Physiology 2.8
Biology and its subdivisions (microbiology, the molecular biology)
2.9 The science of life: medicine and its scientific branches 3)
The earthly science: 3.1
Geology
3.2 Geophysics
3.3 Geochemistry 3.4
Oceanography 3.5
The physics of the atmosphere20 3.6
The physics of the geography 2.
Human sciences. As
far as human sciences are concerned we discern dialectics at the head of the
philosophical science with several subdivisions: logics, epistemology, and
esthetics. Then there are history, economy and law and finally literature
and linguistics. They are the foundations of our classification. Human
sciences are more important than any other science. They are based on the
scientific rules that link natural sciences with philosophy and social
sciences. Indeed before considering computing and automation as a physical,
technical and mathematical science at the head of the first set of the
natural sciences classification, it is advisable to tell about the
metaphysical monist approach that defends the absolute unity of computer
science and denies the division and the diversification of the scientific
branches of computer science. The
historical approach first takes into account the relative development of
computer technology that regards computer as a three dimension
"discipline". The first computer science laid down the great
inventions. It was little by main ideas going with the invention being
different from cybernetics. The second computer science dates back to
1970's. It is characterized by the basic principles and little detached from
the computer but without from the 1960's and the setting up of the great
centralized systems. It was mainly made by opposition to a certain
metaphysical cybernetics.
According to this approach computer science will be automated and it will
appear like the field especially dedicated to computers and their using.
Thus it has become a technique to handle data whereas cybernetics used to
ponder over the use of techniques in the modern world. The third computer
science deals with the diversification of the means and methods, with the
grids and the cohabitation between the small and large systems.
Finally, this historical approach has neither a scientific objective nor a
gnoseological or methodological one. It is not either a basic proof relating
to the scientific and technical development. Lastly,
Ph. Dreyfus has divided computer science into 5 main fields. It is a
positive approach but it remains in the classical apprehension of computer
science: a)
The classical computer science and its subdivisions: 1. the positive
computer science 2.
The analytical computer science 3.
The systematical and logical computer science 4.
The physical and technological computer science 5.
The methodological computer science 6.
The applied computer science 1)
The positive or analytical computer science is the nearest branch to the
precise sciences. Computer science is not only diversified according to the
object of the research and to the scientific division of labor but also
according to its use within the working system. 2)
The systematical and logical computer science looks into the architecture of
the computerized systems in which the computers with their central
processing unit, their memory and their data input and output step. This
classical and traditional approach of Dreyfus is far from looking at the
process of the technological development of the systematical and logical
computer science that has given rise to telecomputers, telematics,
satellites computers and charts. According to Dreyfus there are connections
between the physical and technological computer science and telecomputer 3)
The physical and technological computer science is relatively out of date. 4)
The methodological computer science refers to the research about
programming. It has given rise to another scientific discipline from
computer science: the artificial intelligence and the acknowledgement of
shapes, the synthesis of voice, the engineering of knowledge. 5)
The applied computer science enters the activities of the modern world. The
contemporary computer science is divided into: 1. the computerized
management 2.
The graphic computer science 3.
The computerized medicine 4.
The biocomputer science 5.
The computerized industry 6.
Robotics 7.
Telematics 8.
Telecomputers 9.
The scientific computer technology and data processing relating to
satellites 10.
The nuclear computer science The
rise of the theoretical computer science is the main basis of this science
on which computer science is rising. We can distinguish the theoretical
computer science from the practical computer science. The difference comes
either from inward in the theoretical logic either from outward in the
applications. This second stage needs to specify the phenomena in order to
set up the rule of the empirical foundations. The third stage is made of
hypotheses. The scientific branches of computer technology as concrete aids
to verify the hypotheses play a different part from the classical and
traditional computer science and they enter into a new stage of the
development, changing not only the argument but also the scientific
applications of techniques. As
far as the scientific philosophy is concerned computer science is a
technological science linked to the physical, technical and mathematical
science. There is not an only computer science but several scientific
branches linked both to the chemical, technological and biological sciences
and to the earthly and human sciences. It is different from the classical
computer science as far as the scientific ethics is concerned. From the
dialectical analysis of computer technology we have introduced the
classification of techniques that is no longer made according to the
products but to the processes. For this classification we have used physics,
chemistry and biology as bases for the diversification of the scientific
branches of computer science and their connections within the sketch of the
dialectical classification of science. The diversification of the scientific
branches of computer science is due to military, economic, political and
technological causes. On
one hand the application of data processing to the issue on defense has been
of effect on the military strategy. And on the other hand, following their
research into the "economic and social effects of the investments
towards information" the Japanese have made evident the needs of the
next informational society. And the traditional computer science cannot
provide those needs. So, it has been necessary to think about different
computerized systems. So, we will move directly from the third generation of
computer to the fifth one. The
diversification is also economic: it deals with the output of hardware and
its diversification within the process of production with respect to the
needs in the competitive market. Pioneer from the local network and
Ethernet, the American 3COM, has just carried out a great diversification
while launching out into office automation. The firm has indeed decided to
launch its own work stations especially made for the networks. It deals with
a machine based on 80286 (usually it fits the PCs AT) and some suited
circuits providing a 1M0 central memory extendible to 4M0 (...) The company
deems its proposal is 30% to 50% cheaper than a classical solution with
minicomputers and terminals. 3COM expects to sell 1200 stations in the world
for the first year of marketing... But the world market of the local
networks has difficulty in getting off the ground.
This
state asserts that the radical change is not the result of abstract things;
on the contrary everything proceeds from the material production and from
the exploitation of the main wealth and the development of the labor force.
The distinguished characteristic of technique as a commodity is not
independent from the differentiation and the connection of capital and the
originality of the diversification as a new technique. But this new
technology is in opposition with the rules of the capital development. As a
whole, the material basis of the production rules the differentiation and
the variety of the scientific branches. The
diversification is also technical. "Technology is the science of the
scientific and technical rules of the production process"
What are these scientific and technical rules? What is their function within
the production process in the technologically advanced societies where the
productive human condition, their labor force, their social relations with
foreign powers that lead them and crush them? Men become impotent, got off
their social power defining by their international corporality, their so
called "private" subjectiveness. So, within the computer process
the system of the private appropriation of the collectively produced wealth
unavoidably leads to the underdevelopment of the main wealth. What will the
results of the scientific and technical revolution be in the new
computerized society? How can we resolve the new problems posed by the new
situation and to what extent can these universally developed technologies
create the conditions for all individuals' growth? In reality the issue on
men liberation is raised within a new conception of mankind. It is both the
social and objective world in which we live as concrete individuals with our
subjectiveness and the growth of the individuality. This individuality has
no meaning except if mankind adapts itself to the whole of the external
forces with which we have created our own aim. How can we secure men
liberation from the direct production process after the control functions
have been managed by automated systems? The liberation from the routine can
both be a way of self-management in life and in the computerized society and
a way of changing the productive basis into an automated system.
Robotization provides a new content to the process not only to production
but also to the social relationship. To what extent can computerization
increase imployment, the importance of the cognitive and creative components
in labor and to what extent can it improve the division of the scientific
labor? In other words, how can we pose the issue on dialectics in the
complete use of the intellectual potential of the human being and the
computerized system for an harmonious combination between the artificial
intellect in its improving and human thought? How can the unity of
dialectics consisting in the division in two of one of them and the learning
of these contradictory parts enrich mankind? How can know the unity of
dialectics as a method that consists in identifying the contradictory
tendencies enriches mankind?
As far as the philosophy of the scientific revolutions is concerned the
issue of the connection between philosophy and the scientific knowledge is
raised from a dialectical analysis and a generalization of natural and human
sciences. The methodological analysis of the scientific organization
according to the discipline and from science classification is the main
structural unity of science but on one hand science classification aims at
integrating the scientific knowledge, their union and the discovery of their
dialectical connections and on the other hand it aims the differentiation
between the scientific and technological knowledge, their branching within
the scientific knowledge because it gets several kinds of connections
(communication, organization, reflection and so on...) At that stage we must
resolve the scientific issue on the scientific organization and the
philosophical foundations of computer science over three main levels. Firstly
a critic against the dogmatic position was absolutely useful in the
scientific history. Then, this critical analysis has led to a new solution
for numerous concrete issues on natural sciences as well as on human and
technical sciences. It has clarified the way of the natural science
development that embraces human sciences to realize an only science using
technique to apply it in the productive system so that all the creative
possibilities of technical sciences may be at the disposal of human
sciences. In the computerized society the dialectical unity of science
within an only science is a reality. This is the foundation of all sciences,
the scientific and philosophical synthesis included. Indeed, this
dialectical unity of the knowledge integration is not a melting of
disciplines that have lost their identity but their interaction, their
mutual enriching. So, we have been obliged to examine the object of science
and especially the object of computer science as a physical, technical and
mathematical science (a technologically unified science) in order to
establish a system and a theory on science different from the subjective and
objective idealism and to make evident the historical realization of an only
science. On one hand the dialectical classification of science is the direct
continuation of the French philosophers' science classification: d'Alembert,
Diderot, Gassandi, Descartes, Saint Simon, A.Comte, A.M Ampere, A. Cournot.
On the other hand we have raised the issue on the unity in the foundation of
science classification, considering physics, chemistry and biology as the
foundation of the basic sciences. As for computer science it is inseparable
from the process of the scientific knowledge. But it seems that philosophy
cannot play its part in an efficient way within the development of the world
scientific conception as well as within the understanding of the
philosophical foundation of computer science. Computer science has to
emphasize itself among the other science that is to say as a cognitive and
permanent activity with its own issue. This
social and ethical issue gets four main tendencies: first, science as a
peculiar kind of human activity looks for the direct subject of this
activity: human being. It is revealed when it becomes less and less socially
alienated and more and more "humanly measurable" that is
correlative with the qualities and needs of human being not only expressed
in objective terms and social outcome but also in subjective qualities. This
tendency is the result of a growing appreciation of the human activity. In
other words science penetrates more pressingly the social life as well as
the individual life. It changes it and it initiates rules and some new and
unknown structures. It influences greatly the process: the human being
becomes one of the main subjects of the scientific knowledge. Then, this
tendency gets a clearer and direct socializations and humanization of the
contemporary science included computer science when it reflects some more
general processes linked to the need for a social and ethical regulation of
science. So, science determines the creative and cognitive activity but this
one gives science a new quality, a humanist trend which is quite important
for the society and science itself. Without such a trend science and its
application can become a dangerous and diabolical power used to destroy life
on the Earth. The more science penetrates the mystery the more powerful men
are. But its application involves liabilities. It raises the issue on the
foundation of the scientific ethics and by the way on the philosophical
liability of scientists. Through this issue we have pondered over the
philosophical foundation of computer science. Then,
the need and the scientific nature of the science classification history has
led us to suggest a new interpretation of the classification. The history of
science classification needed such an explanation for two reasons: the first
is that without raising the historical issue on the classification and
without dealing with the issue on its change and on its manifestations in
the various scientific fields and above all in computer science, it is
impossible to raise the issue on the unity of the philosophical foundation
of computer science. The second reason is that "science history deals
with an axiological activity with the search after truth. It is at the stage
of the issue on the method and the conception that the scientific activity
as such appears. That is why the time of the science history can't be a side
thread of the time course".
So, on one hand according to us "science and culture consist in getting
reality with them without getting drowned".
And on the other hand we think that science proceeds from the need, the
social activities of men with which they can change nature as well as
themselves. By the way we can come to the issue on the structure of the
scientific knowledge from the angle of the analysis of the conceptual system
of science classification or computer science. For example in chemistry and
physics, science was formed by itself and its object got specified parallel
to the change in the former notions that were too vague in scientific
concepts. We can note some phenomena in the other basic fields of the
scientific knowledge. The process of formation of the basic sciences shows
the general structure of the scientific knowledge. The structure can be the
following: science roughly speaking as a sphere of activity for all the
scientists; a peculiar branch of science (for example chemistry or physics);
a narrow sphere of the scientific activity but independent from the
scientist. Finally
the value of the existence of over five thousand millions human beings in a
world full of fear and contradictions depends on the philosophical answers
of our age. These philosophical answers give possibilities to science and to
computer science and by multiplying discoveries and astonishing inventions
that are able to provide a worthy life to all men. Philosophy and science do
not lead to the whole negation of the main wealth, that is to say men
themselves, because of a social system, but on the contrary they lead to the
truth of the mankind existence that puts an end to all the trouble raised to
men condition. It
is the part of science and philosophy. The scientific and technical
revolution will release men from the automated production. There are some
emancipative forces required to men. The problem is how to manage altogether
these forces. This is the historic objective of the new humanism. It
coincides with the growth of the competitive individualism as B. Brecht
notes it: "climbing, always climbing over someone" whereas
everybody can peacefully climb altogether. This
research is dedicated to the study of the classification of sciences and the
philosophical foundations of computing to create the ACADEMY of
sciences and a national center for national research of Kurdistan . It
concerns its logical, mathematical, linguistic, physical, technological and
ethical aspects as a problem of the scientific philosophy of our century. An
attempt is made to define the historical nature of the classification of
sciences, to interpret its philosophical foundations and to specify its
connections with the scientific and technical revolution from a
philosophical and methodological point of view. The
dialectic analysis of the scientific knowledge of sciences and the
philosophical foundations of computing is carried out on five different
levels : the first corresponds to the study of all the processes aiming at
developing the atomistic model of the classification and with the logical,
mathematical, linguistic, physical, technological and ethical foundations of
computing ; the second corresponds to some notions of the classification and
organization of the scientific system of knowledge up to the fundamental
principles of the development of knowledge and sciences; the third
corresponds to the historical and scientific approaches of the
classification of sciences and the fundamental principles of classification
; the fourth, to the classification of computing and the diversification of
the scientific branches of computing (contemporary computing, management
computing, graphical computing, medical computing, bio-computing, industrial
computing, robotics, telematics and remote-access computing, etc.) ; finally
the fifth one which is of highest level represents the general methodology
of the philosophy of scientific revolutions which provides the whole
structure of the scientific cognitive activity (artificial intelligence and
scientific knowledge) and identifies the main types and mechanisms of the
dialectics of the process of human knowledge. Consequently, particular
attention is given to the revolution of computing, to society and to the
method of treating science which makes it possible to show the contents of
the Scientific and Technical revolution and to the place that computing
occupies in the new outline of the dialectic classification of sciences. In
the orientation of the philosophy of scientific revolutions, the socio
ethical humanist and scientific approach shows four fundamental tendencies.
Firstly, science as a particular form of human activity attempts to unite
with itself the direct subject of this activity: man. Secondly, this
tendency towards a clearer and more direct socializations and humanization
of contemporary science, including computing, reflects more general
processes linked with the need for a socio ethical and humanistic regulation
of science. Thirdly, the need and the scientific nature of the history of
the classification of sciences which obliges us to revalorize a new
dialectic and materialistic interpretation of the classification. Fourthly,
the question of the new civilization depends on the philosophical response
of our time and the question of man's freedom which is posed in a new
conception of humanity is both the social and objective world in which we
live as concrete individuals, with our subjectivity, and the development of
individuality which does not have any sense without the developed humanity
that, by our appropriation of all these exterior forces, by which we have
created our own end. By which means we can guarantee the liberation of man
from the process of direct production following the handing over of the
control and monitoring functions to the automatic, autoregulator systems or
the liberation from routine work, its transformation into an act of creation
in a technology that can become both an self management intervention and an
instrument for men in everyday life and in the computerized firm ; it can
become both an instrument for transforming productive bases into automatic
systems, to the robotization that gives a new content to the process, not
only in production but also in social responses. The answer can be given by
the scientific philosophers to found the ACADEMY of sciences and a
national center for scientific research of Kurdistan
Dr
Ali KILIC
Paris le 06-05-2008 Bibliographie (i).François
Dagognet L’ultime sanctuaire. In Milieux, W 30/1987, p.2 (2),Eftichios
Bitsakis. Physique contemporaine et matérialisme dialectique Editions
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«La philosophie
marxiste léniniste et les problèmes
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Jizn,1975,N° 5,p.II – Jean
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d'Organisations, Paris,l984,p.19 Jean
Claude Beaune, L'Automate et ses Mobiles Flammarion, Sciences Humaines,
Paris, 1980,p.19 Karl
Marx, Manuscrits 1844, Editions Sociales, Paris,1962, p.96 Hegel,
Phenomenologie de 1'esprit, Tome,I,p.124 Hegel,
Science de la Logique, Doctrine de 1'Essence, Tome,I Traduit de 1'alm.par
J.P. Labariere et G. Jarzyk, Aubier,Paris,1976,p.91 J.C.
Beaune, Technologie, PUF, Paris, 1972, p.8 Philippe
Breton, Histoire de 1'informatique, p.127 Editions La Decouverte, Paris,
1987 Hegel,
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J.P. Labariere et G. Jarzyk, Aubier,Paris,1976,p.91 Florence
Antomachi-A. Castiel-E. Seyden, Pense ... Machine Editions C.E.S.T.A.1986,
p.144 Philippe
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1987 Hegel,
Science de la Logique, Doctrine de 1'Essence, Tome,I Traduit de 1'alm.par
J.P. Labariere et G. Jarzyk, Aubier,Paris,1976,p.91 Informatique
Magasine, Revue Pratique des PME-PMI Juin-aout 1987,N°9,p.16 Hirschfeld,
Veda technika, Technologie,Prague,1963,p.259 [1] [1] Dr Ali KILIC,La Classification des Sciences et l‘Informatique ; Fondements Philosophiques de l’Informatique, Publication de l’ Université Lille 1988, pp.313-330 [2]
J.C
Beaune. i.n Milieux, W 30,1987,p.76 [3]
ibidem [4]
Eftichios
BITSAKIS. Physique
Contemporaine et matérialisme
dialectique, Editions
Sociales Paris ,1973,p.261-262 [5]
ibid [6]
E. Séménov, La
philosophie marxiste léniniste
et les problèmes des sciences naturelles ; in le
Communiste 1968, N° 10,
p-62-135 [7]
Koursanov,
Naouka i Jizn N°7
p.8 1 [8]
G,Frank,L’opinion du
savant, Moscou , Editions de l’Académie des Sciences 1963, p.480 [9]
G,Frank,Opus Cit. p.580 [10]
P.. Thuillier, In
La Recherche Mai,l972.p. [11] François Jacop, Biologie Moléculaire In Atome, 1969, In La recherche p.55 [12]
F. Jacop, Opus Cit. .p ?58 [13]
V. Enguelgardt, Naouka i Jizn 1975,N°5, p.11 [14]
Denise Barlow (Vienne,
Autriche) [15]
Bryan Turner (Birmingham,
RU) [16]
Sarre, Allemagne [17]
Halle, Allemagne [18]
Peter
Becker (Munich, Allemagne)
[19]
Epigenetics
and
development [20]
Moshe YANIV Conférence
débat et controverses « Epigénétique et mémoire cellulaire, une nouvelle discipline, au cœur du développement et
des pathologies » [21]
Centre
Wellcome Trust pour la biologie cellulaire, Edimbourg, GB
[22]
Adrian
BIRD,
Institute of Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, UK The Wellcome
Trust Centre for Cell Biology, University ofEdinburgh, Michael [23]
Conférence débat et
controverses Epigénétique et mémoire cellulaire, une nouvelle discipline, au cœur
du développement et des pathologie [24]
Robert FEIL,
Institut de Génétique Moléculaire, Montpellier L’empreinte génomique
et son rôle dans le développement Robert Feil, Institut de Génétique
Moléculaire (IGMM), CNRS et Université de Montpellier, [25]
, Institut de Génétique
Humaine , Montpellier [26]
Giacomo CAVALLI, Epîgénétique
et développement, Institut
de Génétique Humaine, Montpellier [27] Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis [28]
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