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Dr
Ali KILIC
Paris
06-05-2008
The
Academy of the Sciences
of Kurdistan
and
The
Physical Sciences,The
Chemical and Biological Sciences,
And
The conference of the Academy of Sciences in Paris
The Physical Sciences, the Chemical
and Biological Sciences were
the subject of our analysis on the classification of Sciences[1]
and Informatics, philosophical foundations of science. The philosophy of
biology, chemistry and physics was one of my concerns in the history of
science that led to the drafting of a project for the Foundation of the
Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan, in the but the planning and scheduling of
science for the founding of the State of the Republic of Kurdistan. But Mr
Massoud Barzani and Mr Talabani Djelal have not responded to our request.
On 13 May 2008 the section of molecular and cellular biology,
genomics of the Academy of Sciences will organize a conference on
epigenetics and cellular memory. This is a new discipline of molecular and
cellular biology, genomics. The question that arises What is epigenetics?
What is the relationship established with scientific research that I had
completed twenty years ago? What are the conclusions in relation to the
project for the founding of the Academy of Kurdistan that we introduced
since January 2005 the authorities of Kurdistan?
Indeed, for researchers and scientists of Kurdistan where the
Foundation of the Academy of Sciences and the Center of the Research
Scientifical of
Kurdistan, is a question of the organization's scientific knowledge, it is
now our hearts scientific and philosophical works for years. The question
that arises is: how Scientific Kurdistan can remain indifferent face of
scientific and technical progress insofar States which occupy Kurdistan use
all the new technologies to prevent the release of the Kurdish people. In
other words, how and by what means our researchers can transform these new
technologies to change the relationship of forces so that scientific and
technological progress is available to the construction of Kurdistan
released. There are several reasons.
First scientific reason for organising the science and objective of
the Academy of Sciences. With the scientific and technological revolution,
the radical qualitative performed in the modern system of science change all
aspects of technological and reports highlight the important scientific
tasks and complex: Substantial, because they require the need to discard the
scientific basis of a new society through the introduction of new
technologies. Because the Scientific and Technical Revolution have created a
new rule of Science and Technology
.
that
the technology on the production, science becomes a decisive factor and more
dynamic development of productive forces. Complexes, because "the times
they are essential to maintain the competitiveness of the economy in crisis,
and both create antagonistic contradictions which" have changes in
technology, knowledge about man in his life, on employment must be
drastically controlled. "
Nowadays, nobody questioned the fact that science can serve humanity,
mankind and all peoples of the world, but at the same time, we find that its
results are often used by dominant forces for humanity and harming the
interests of peoples. This situation creates a serious social problem;
How to give, Scientific guidance which will promote the development of
civilization?
How to learn to control the movement of scientific thought in line with the
interests of man, of humanity and peoples?
In both cases, the question that arises in the first place, concerns the
organization of science in society and scientific research, forecasting the
development of social processes and in science itself. These applications of
science and science that highlight the principles of Ethics of Science,
which became the subject of numerous scientific research. The truth is that
the study of science, is a necessity in scientific reality of our time in
the history of philosophy, the issue of science, has been asked by
philosophers in two ways:
Firstly, science is a cognitive activity.
Secondly, science is a system of knowledge of the man with an object
and a method of investigation own. This requires the active intervention of
the organization's scientific knowledge of employees for a new scientific
planning and organization of a new division of scientific work to found the
Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan. Based on a dialectic of Sciences
classification based on the division des Sciences de l'Homme, Natural
Sciences and Earth Sciences and space, the Academy of Sciences sets its goal
as follows:
_Adopter Of scientific research programmes of action to strengthen the role
of science and increase the scientific and technical knowledge from a
classification dialectic of science and interdisciplinary scientific
interaction,
• carry out or have to carry out scientific research for the advancement
of science, solve new problems or untreated until now in the fields of
Anatolian Civilizations, to help safeguard crops millennia
• encourage researchers to do work, subsidize scientific publications and
create new units applied research to promote dialogue between scientific
activities and the opening of an international scientific and technical
cooperation,
•
organize and monitor the preparatory education to research. Ultimately, the
objectives of the scientific approach of the organization of scientific
knowledge is to answer questions from the scientific environment and
highlight the scientific research units and the links between them.
The study of the scientific environment
1. What scientific environment are we?
2. What is the scientific potential exists inside and outside the country
and what is the level of its scientific organization, technical and
academic?
3. What are qualities existing scientific and scientific purpose for which
we can reorganize the scientific needs of the country and the region and how
we can improve performance in the four Universities of Kurdistan?
4. What are the prospects for an opening for international scientific and
technical cooperation for a scientific organization and basic research in
considering the challenges and risks?
5. What is our strategic choice and technology in relation to the scientific
purpose, political, commercial and how can we develop new methods using new
technologies from the organization of scientific knowledge and its
international transfer in the process the founding of Kurdish state and
facing the development of European science?
5. Structures of the organization's scientific knowledge
A) The organization of scientific knowledge in organizing the scientific
potential existing in Kurdistan and Mesopotamia
B) The nature of the organization and planning and reorganization of science
in the process of creating Constituent Assembly and the state in South
Kurdistan.
C) The definition of scientific and technical tasks main and sub-specialized
scientific tasks for the planning of the Society of Kurdistan,
Finally, the search is a scientific activity whose purpose is scientific
practice.
• The completion of a scientific research is carried out by a methodology
which is either a technical procedure, either a strategy for the scientific
purpose or carrying out several tasks. This means that the completion of
each task requires the active participation of every scientist specialized
in light of data on which apply the scientific objective determined.
The free choice of the researcher and scientist is the foundation of
development and the development of scientific freedom and academic
researcher or scientist is responsible for its choice and the appropriate
method in the sector and is obliged to carry out scientific, technical and
artistic accordance with its choices.
6. The current direction of science and the scientific purpose of the
dissemination of science for a real scientific methodology of the
theoretical analysis of the organization of scientific knowledge requires
determining the direction of development of science and the study their
application areas. In this sense, we believe it is impossible to resolve the
issues of reorganization of scientific knowledge and its links with the
company is asking these questions in human sciences is a science of nature,
as matters purely methodological, which totally disregards the qualities
gnoséological or as purely
gnoséological which are
totally ignored methodological issues of knowledge and science (ignore the
dialectic), either as purely economic issues and policies which completely
ignore the application of science to production. On the other hand, it means
that the strict application of science to production is a necessity, because
the needs of society are composed of the needs of science, whose
satisfaction will depend mainly on the level of production, the state of
technical, material possibilities and potential scientific society itself.
The focus of our scientific approach to the founding of the Centre de la
Recherche Scientifique of Kurdistan depends primarily on the reorganization
of the human sciences of the natural sciences and earth sciences and space
in second place the interpretation of the purpose of basic and applied
sciences. That is why we attach great value to science academies of sciences
in Europe, especially at the Academy of Sciences of France including the
foundations of the founding of the Academy of Sciences of Kurdistan.
What
is the relationship established between our scientific and academic level of
development of science and the Conference of the Academy of Sciences after
twenty years of our scientific and academic work?
The key issue is that the development of physical sciences. Chemical
and biological basis of the diversification of scientific branches of
science was my point of departure.
First I pay tribute to the President of Academic and Scientific Jury who
spoke favorably upon presentation of my thesis. "Lovers traces of
surfaces, images of body movement remarkable connoisseur of the arts of
science[2]
and technology" François Dagognet in his speech at the Symposium of
Creusot, said "science has not ceased to lay out what is l
'Interiority. The disciplines most innovative operators have pulled their
procedures secret, then broken. reproduced and even improved It has suffered
from this kidnapping. was. challenged, but he did so far interrupted..
"[3]But
the problem is how one of the major development of science is that it is
oriented towards the study not only of items already Included in the
transformation practice of the mass. production, in everyday experience.
Mats also objects whose use practice will in principle only to future stages
of historical development. civilization as a whole?
In the course of its history, science equated various types of objects
systemic, developing knowledge on their properties, on the laws of their
operation and transformation.
Each type of organization requires systemic objects to be known and
understood, a special category grid serving concrete scientific notions that
characterize the details of the structure and behaviour of objects in
question.
Undoubtedly philosophy is capable of creating categorical matrices necessary
for scientific research before the science begins to control the types of
matching. The application categories developed by philosophy in scientific
research concrete enriches and develops it. However, to fix their content
again, we need once again to. Reflection on the philosophical science that
form a particular aspect of philosophical apprehension of reality in the
course do which is developing the device block of philosophy. "But the
philosophy is not a science. (.) Its purpose is not this or that particular
area of reality. But at the same time philosophy is a science-science
general laws of reality.. Here, E. Bitsakis[4] mixing the definition of the dialectic with philosophy.
It is distinct and special science is at the same time a science for many
reasons he says. "The philosophy has an object; it seeks to identify
and formulate laws on this subject: She uses the methods of science. It has
a body of knowledge, it has a history, as science-like and at the same time
profoundly different ;(...) File The definition of philosophy as science can
not conceal its specific character, its relative autonomy by special report
on science and its qualitative difference compared to them. The formula
science and defines the concepts, philosophy and formula defines the
philosophical categories.. "La. confrontation in the history of
philosophy[5] and natural sciences can therefore see that philosophy
has certain possibilities projected in relation to scientific research,
since it is capable of producing in advance categorical structures that will
be necessary . "Philosophy can not play its effective role in
developing the design of world scientific writing N, Séménov, if it
manages to be argued along with other sciences, as their equal, ie as
Science special issue with its precise, a litigant also meticulous study and
concrete that the object of any science, "[6](3).
The contradiction between itself the universal character of human knowledge
and his approach necessarily compartmentalized within science, the
contradiction between the specification of scientific knowledge and the
trend towards integration, that's what makes it so indispensable development
d 'A world-scientific' philosophy.
The question that arises is what are the mechanisms to ensure such a
development class development of science of unity and diversification of
their branches of science in general and scientific development of
information technology in particular. The answer is not related only to
study the nature of philosophical knowledge but also the knowledge
engineering. It involves analysis function of philosophy as a theoretical
kernel of the design world and the cognitive activity of the elucidation of
the relationship between philosophical categories and the culture.
The
science, scientific and technological revolution have led to deep
differences between the various branches specializing in the manufacture of
products. But gradually as the growing differentiation and that there always
new branches. We see the growing importance of relations between the various
branches and their coordination, which call for a centralized function of
the economy. At the heart of this scientific development instead of science
applied to. all levels of life is crucial. That is why it is necessary to
clarify our classification dialectic of science and the place of information
technology in the scheme we are proposing is a characteristic of science.
First, the classification dialectic of basic sciences division between the
natural sciences and human sciences and finally the technical sciences. Then
we divide the natural sciences into three parts:
1. The physical and technical sciences and mathematics
2.The science-technology chemical and biological
_____
3. The Earth Sciences.
L The physical and technical sciences and mathematics
divided into six parts: They are:
I. scientific computing and automation
2. The mathematics
3. The general physics and astronomy
4. Nuclear physics
5. The physical technique of energy
6. The mechanical and ordering process
II. Science chemical-and biological technology are divided into five parts:
L. The general chemistry and technical
2. La. Physico-chemistry and technology of inorganic substances
3. The biochemistry, biophysics and chemical compounds,
4. The physiology
5. The general biology.
111. 1st earth sciences are es following:
1 The geology, geochemistry and geophysics
2. The oceanography, physics of 1 atmosphere
The human sciences are divided between:
I. The philosophy
2. The story
3. 1 economy and the law
4. literature and linguistics.
The development of science was determined by three basic sciences: the
physical sciences, chemical sciences and biological sciences. The
classification of science and the connection and differentiation of branches
scientific computing are inseparable from the scientific process.
I.
The physical sciences
They are undoubtedly physics and physicists who kicked off the revolution in
the natural sciences of our time. The funky and discoveries, the rapid
development of physical sciences, particularly after the Second World War,
have fertilized and stimulated the development and progress radicals other
natural sciences.
The inevitable intervention of physics in all divisions of science proceeds
in large measure because , takes as subject to study the properties of both
the simplest and most general of terms. This is a good reason that physics
is called the "mother of. Mechanics. " The progress of physical
sciences exerts a direct influence on all the essential elements of modern
production - energy base, working tools and technology physics exerts a
strong influence on objects of work (and raw materials). This is
particularly evident in our time where we see the rise of energy and atomic
and nuclear technology, electronic technology and laser technology
semiconductors and integrated circuits.
One can say without exaggeration that the results of the physical sciences
o. served as a starting point for the creation and development of a very
large number basic sciences (particularly those that arise at the junction
of chemical and physical sciences, biological and physical). and many
fundamental scientific disciplines of engineering.
The progress of physics have exerted a huge influence on the design of the
contemporary world. This is due primarily to the close links uniting physics
and. theory of knowledge, Divisions fundamental modern physics, as the study
of the structure of matter theory. a relativity, quantum mechanics, are
organically linked to the theory of knowledge.
The restricted theory of widespread. Relativity of Albert Einstein's theory
of e la, quantum mechanics were naturally fundamental theories that have
given the departure of scientific theory and modern physics for a large part
in all the natural sciences.
In contemporary science, Einstein's scientific work, provide a striking
example. It proves that the relativity of space, time and movement, one can
infer that the mass of a body depends on its speed and thus energy movement.
If the speed approaching its limit - 300 000 km / sec - the mass of the body
tends to infinity, La. Thesis Einstein that mass of a body at rest depends
on its internal energy E had an immense importance. The pier and was the
basis of the energy of the scientific revolution.
and
technical It appeared that if we measured the energy and mass through the
normal units, energy is equal to mass multiplied by the square of the speed
of light -1. In other words E. = ml
The division of the nucleus of uranium reached 3 million times more energy
than the chemical reaction of a combustion (1g uranium provides more heat
than 3 tons of coal). But it is there. That a small portion of the energy
contained in all the mass of matter. Already nuclear energy uses about ten
times more than the inner energy particles compared with Atomic Energy of
the disintegration of heavy nuclei.
The formula Einstein opens up prospects even more remote and grandiose
energy use kernel, it contains the following steps of the scientific and
technological revolution in the energy field. To get a complete picture of
potential energy of matter flowing from the formula of Einstein, just
engaging â, simple arithmetic.
According to Einstein's formula, energy is equal to the mass (say, for
example 1g) multiplied by the square of the speed of light -1. The speed of
light is 300 000 km / s, or 3.10 cm / s. Consequence 1 = 9.10 cm / s. By
multiplying the mass in grams per 1 we get the energy it contains ergs. 1kWh
is equal to. 3,6.10 ergs. So the total energy recelée in one gram of
substance is equal to 9.10 ergs, and divided by 3,6.10, it is equal to
2.5.10 kWh (or 25 million kwh).
From the reactions that we are known today, the full realization of this
energy is possible only through the clash of matter and antimatter, called
by the reaction of annihilation. It was determined that if a particle meets
its corresponding antiparticle, they annihilate disappear, while their
energy and mass are converted into energy and more full (for example in the
radiation), without breaking the law of the conservation, with full
realization of all energy, according to Einstein's formula E = ml This
exceeds several thousand times the amount of energy per unit mass reached at
the nuclear reactions,
The revolution in physics has therefore opportunities for turning in
technique and in any material production.
Another axis of the scientific revolution in physics, closely related.
nuclear physics and the atomic energy quantum mechanics, heralds a turning
revolutionary technology, technology and production.
One can understand the processes leading to fission and nuclear synthesis
only, using the theory of quanta. Quantum mechanics was the theoretical
basis for development of electronics, and later, generators quantum of
light, lasers, ie the fundamental basis of a revolutionary turning already
visible in production technology.
The opportunities afforded by the use of laser beams are immense.
The
properties of laser-the opportunity to focus on tiny masses of
matter-permit, the leader on a mass thermonuclear (a mixture of deuterium
and tritium), to create the conditions for a thermonuclear reaction
temperature of tens of millions of degrees and density of fuel exceeding
hundreds of times the density of the solid body. This is a promising
direction of establishing a thermonuclear energy.
The application of laser technology also opens up great prospects. the
creation of a method of optical information processing and manufacturing of
optical calculators speed operative - known as optoelectronics. This
involves replacing a liaison usual cable and wire by an optical link - a
light-guide fiber, the manufacture of a 'working optical memory of a great
capacity for computers and a' memory) Permanent for information systems.
All these ideas and. Discoveries have opened the door has an extraordinary
progress of the radio and the procession triomphai of l1ectronique that
penetrates literally touti'4es branches of the art and areas of technology.
The influence that physics, including quantum theory, has exercised over the
chemical sciences, is. this respect very instructive. The classification
periodic Mendêléev, which was in large measure an empirical law of
chemistry, has acquired, with the development. of quantum mechanics and
approval model atomic quantum solid theoretical basis, fi is that the
arrangement of elements discovered by Mendéléev a physical sense. both
important and simple. The serial number of an element in the sense mendéléevien
(physicists call it atomic number) is equal to the number of positive
charges or, in other words, the number of protons in the nucleus of atoms of
this element. The law Mendéléev became one of the laws of atomic physics
and nuclear.
The quantum theory opens up tremendous opportunities to the physics of solid
in the field of action on the fundamental properties of metals and crystal
in general. The quantum properties of solids can use the crystal in the
manufacture of many instruments of physics. The study of physical phenomena
on thin semiconductor films has become an essential element of work to get
integrated circuits, hybrid and functional, which directly affects.
miniaturization and the microminiaturisation of electronic assemblies and
the creation of the last generations of computers.
This is the table although incomplete decisive changes in the physical XXÔ
century. All we have to say concerns scientific discoveries already. made
and their impact already. Visible on the technical and material production,
But the revolution in physics continues. The technical means always the most
powerful available for research in physics dice continually increasing its
possibilities. With a technical research and experimentation increasingly
complex, physicists, penetrating into the depths of the micro and macro
world, discover new problems and not always resolved in a comprehensive and
fundamental importance.
The successes in the construction of particle accelerators. energy growing
yielded very important data which have raised fundamental problems whose
solution will open at. humanity new opportunities.
These are primarily the problems of the structure of particles with a strong
interaction (adrons), whose most famous are the proton and the neutron.
Their properties and their systematic today are well described. from the
assumption subélémentaires particles, quarks ...
It is quite possible that the energy obtained with the current accelerators
is not sufficient to free quarks concentrated in adrons. If this hypothesis
is confirmed, it means it will consider alternate methods of energy in the
act Basic hundreds or thousands of doing more powerful than that achieved
with conventional nuclear reactions, this opens the prospect of a gigantic
leap in the potential energy of the universe and perhaps of mankind.
Another group again, that the problems of. weak interaction. He may have a
fundamental importance not only to understand the microstructure of the
material, but also the spatial and temporal structure of our world and,
perhaps, for cosmology. In particular, it may be that the solution of major
problems with the structure of. Matters will require fundamental review
representations of space and time, that penetration in the heart of the
micro-world make it possible processes which we now seem improbable I
".
In the opinion of physicists, approximation of particles at a distance of 10
- 16 - 10 - 17 cm may give rise to phenomena of fundamental importance. The
distances that order correspond to an energy of about 300 billion électrovolts
in a system whose center of inertia is a particle collision. That is why the
study of a package to obtain protons to an energy of 2 to 5 trillion électrovolts.
And new opportunities hitherto unknown yet appear 'clash of heavy nuclei may
give rise to phenomena comparable to the shock waves through the action
which the nuclear material can go to unusual statements. The scientific
researchers report in this regard the possible existence of new forms of
nuclear material different from atomic nuclei that we know.
The acceleration of technology creates new phenomena practices purely
technological and scientific. Here are some examples:
The beams of particles accelerated exerted on many substances very specific
that we can not achieve by other methods,
sources of gamma rays, electronic accelerators are widely used for
sterilization in the medical devices industry for the polymerisation
radiation insulation cables, for défectoscopie large parts in the
mechanical industry, etc..;beams of electrons with an intensity of up to one
million amps are used in research to control thermonuclear fusion;
The accelerated heavy ions can be used in the manufacture of molecular
filters virus by irradiation of a plastic film These filters can carry out
disinfection of water by simple filtering.
These examples that we cited in the field of physics can lead to a new
interpretation of the natural sciences and general laws of the world, open
new prospects for the new technology and computerization of society and
production This revolution in the physical sciences is inseparable in the
chemical sciences in the unit dialectical process of scientific knowledge
and technical. their applications.
11.
The Chemical Sciences
The revolution in science has developed chemical on one side of autonomously
within the framework of this science, ie in the process of unification and
diversification of chemical sciences, and the other, under the power of
recent trends in physics and foremost in quantum physics, nuclear physics or
high-energy subatomic physics.
The technical revolution in chemistry is linked to control of the structure
of molecules and consequently the creation of substances structure and
properties defined in advance, ie the creation of controlled chemical bonds.
Again, integration (or interaction) and usage (differentiation) of recent
concepts of physical sciences play a leading role. On the one hand, the
scientific application of the architecture of molecules was followed by
basic discoveries that, for example, who identified and molecular weight.
validation of the notion of valence elements, ie the number of atoms types
with which an atom of the element is able to unite to form a stable
combination. Thus were made laws of the composition of molecules and laid
the theoretical basis for chemical synthesis on the subject. On the other
hand, the progress made by science chemical itself is taking advantage of
new theories and possibilities offered by scientific branches of modern
physics, which brings the first theoretical explanation of the many laws
established empirically.
That said, the development of science around the middle of the twentieth
century has revealed that not only the electron moving creates a magnetic
field but that the electron at rest, also a "magnet Basic has a set of
properties that allow it to be valentiel, The role of the electron results
in a whole range of phenomena in the remarkable. Chemistry crystals,
including control of a crystal lattice, inspecting properties semi-conductor
and dielectric, the formation of entirely new chemical compounds.
The possibility to form molecules and substances naturally required to
continue the study of architecture substances and existing molecules, its
interrelation with the essential properties of the substance, as well as
find ways to act on 'Architecture of molecules. It was intensely studied
architecture at this great architect that nature. The essential properties
of the material depending on the geometric layout of the same atoms in space
(as part of molecules) gave birth to a specific branch of chemistry that
deals with the spatial arrangement of atoms in the molecule and the
influence of this factor on the geometric properties of matter is the
stereochemistry. The emergence of this science was already provided for in
the last century by A. Bourtherov,
That is why we can ask clearly explain the nature of the diversification of
branches of science (physical, chemical, biological) in both the dialectical
unity of fundamental interaction and diversity of unity and fight for their
? In other words, if the full knowledge of the structure and laws of the
surrounding world has offered to humanity, technology and production, the
possibility of creating a controlled and planned, substances and materials
with properties defined in advance and necessary to men, is that there will
be a scientific answer that will resolve the problem of labour computerized
objects - one of the basic elements essential for material production
assisted by new technology " ?
First, gasoline and specificity of the scientific and technological
revolution are expressed in the combination of analysis and explanation of
the structure of matter, the nature of reactions and processes that occur in
the world surrounding the structure of the process of organic life,
functioning mechanisms and the mechanical action on the process of working
with processes of a whole. other order as:
-- Action-oriented structure of matter on the synthesis of body properties
data in advance on obtaining artificial and monitoring reactions of
disintegration and synthesis of light and heavy nuclei;
-- The development and practical use of an information theory, a theory and
practice of automatic control systems, machines;
-- The creation of systems for automated data processing, management systems
and automated automatic in the complex technical and socio-economic
production;
-- A second action-oriented process of organic life ever more important.
The characteristics of a material and technical background. Revolution
scientific computing with the corollary, the radical changes in relations
between man and the environment, define the social aspect of this
revolution. It does not affect only the technical and information technology
in particular, but it also creates conditions for a radical change in the
nature and content of human work in the technological processes in general.
Besides, it radically changed the role of man and the role of science-kid in
the system of productive forces.
A far-reaching social consequences of scientific and technological
revolution is what a kid time offers the possibility to increase
significantly the free time, which in turn creates conditions for an
increase in the level of education and qualification. LifeIntellectual men
is also profoundly changed they receive a mass and a range of information
constantly growing, modern means of transport and communications so
extraordinary increase their opportunities to participate in events as
varied referring to times or to the most varied, the usual range of consumer
goods and services change radically, leading to a change corollary of human
needs. All these changes are marked by an extraordinary dynamism of social
development.
Thus, the scientific revolution creates the physical premises of a
development of productive forces, an increase of scientific potential that
gives man's disposal the creative possibilities that allow it to intervene
to modify and solve social problems Economic essential mode of production.
Another exceptionally important premise of the revolution in the natural
sciences is the intervention of mathematics and mathematical method in all
fields of science. The formulation of the basic laws of physics, chemistry,
biology and computer science today is based on mathematics. It is this
reality that we want to develop the progress of theoretical chemistry, using
the results of physics which have considerably broadened the range of
problems studied by the chemical sciences. Car chemistry encompasses areas
of the world always new organic and inorganic entering the field of science
related form of new sciences boundary. S'enrichissant methods and
conclusions of these sciences, while enriching them to the nth time, we want
to include the basic guidelines of chemistry.
In a first step, we divide the general chemistry into two fundamental parts
of the élémento-organic chemistry and the non-organic chemistry. In a
second step, we will explore the diversification of scientific branches of
chemistry and we want to show the possibility of this distinction in the
existing system of science. The complex chemical compounds, geo-chemistry
and chemistry of the earth, physical and chemical mechanical,
electrochemistry, biochemistry, radio-chemistry, chemical physics, chemical
kinetics, and to complete the chemistry of solid and agrochemicals. Then we
will show the one hand, in developing the chemistry of solid, the problems
of chemical classifications of these solids, and secondly, the method of
molecular stratification created by researchers of our time, which
contributed not only to the development of physical sciences, but also the
progress made by the chemical sciences pursue their turn, a huge influence
on the truly revolutionary developments taking place in biological sciences
..
The
development of chemical sciences and classification of branches of science:
a) The élémento-organic chemistry, which is a junction of organic
chemistry and non-organic The development of this branch has helped create
entire families of new polymers organometallic compounds and organic
properties still unknown, and d ' adopting technological methods for
obtaining polymers incomparably easier and more economical.
b) The chemical compounds complexas who will discover many new classes of
chemical compounds. She helped create one. Precious metals industry and
solve the chemical aspects of nuclear energy, chemical compounds complex
plays a crucial role with regard to the development of chemical processes
effective technology for treating raw materials .*
c) The geochemistry or chemistry of the Earth, which in its research
materials and Earth processes based on laws and chemical methods. This
science studies the chemical evolution of our planet, seeks to explain the
viewpoint chemical origin and history of the Earth, its layers, its terrain,
mountains, seas and oceans.
d). physico-chemical mechanical linking the mechanical and electrical
properties of matter at. its composition and chemical structure.
e) electrochemistry, branch of chemistry devoted to the study of the
properties of ions containing systems and processes involving ions, taking
place at a meeting point of these systems with other bodies, including
metals. Can be classified in electrochemistry everything that relates to the
liaison between the electrical and chemical phenomena.
f) The biochemistry, who studies protein structure and protein molecules,
the functions of enzymes, problems and protein synthesis. in the body, the
relationship of dependency between the chemical structure and. biological
functions (activity) of proteins. La. biochemistry studies of key processes
and complex against 1 'immunity and properties of proteins immunisantes
g). radiochemistry, which is closely linked to the problems of
radio-activity and radioactive isotopes, use of atomic energy.
h) The physical chemical, which is interested in applying the results of
modern physics, the basic problems of chemistry, and specifically the issues
of the structure of atoms and molecules and. studying the mechanism intimate
chemical reactions.
i) The chemical kinetics, science chemical transformations. who die speeds
and directions of the chemical reaction. The development of a general theory
of the process chain and the discovery of possibilities to control chemical
reactions chain depend on the development of this branch of chemistry.
The progress made by the physical sciences and chemical sciences have an
influence on the biological sciences â It is from physics and chemistry
that biologists dealing with energy efficiency and â studying the complex
processes that are place in the living organism, and vice versa. â
chemistry seeks to use biological principles to solve the tasks of chemical
synthesis.
III
The biological sciences
Recent discoveries of physics, chemistry and mathematical methods have led
to a revolution in the biological sciences. Molecular biology has
revolutionized the science of World kids living in proportions that quantum
theory has revolutionized the nuclear physics that there are forty years.
The intense study of the biological functions of living beings. from the
analysis of the structure and molecular interactions gave biochemistry
leadership, leading to a relatively new science - molecular biology. In kid
time, the establishment of the principle of catalytic functioning of living
matter was a fundamental for the development of biological science.
Take the seeds in the biological
sciences
The ferments are in many ways incomparably superior to artificial catalysts.
Before their power by any action, thousands of chemical reactions take place
in living organisms. Using ferments, in the absence of high temperatures and
pressures, millions and billions of times faster in the presence of the best
chemical catalysts.
The ferments have yet another benefit - the most important. They differ
catalysts artificial rationality surprising for their actions, strictly
oriented and maximum efficiency. Each closing act in an optimum manner,
without finding technological solutions optimal 'in transforming not only
one compound or a group of very close. and transforming them in a direction
strictly determined.)
The discovery and description of a growing number of biochemical reactions
â put the agenda the task of trying to establish the fundamental principles
that govern the nature and interdependence of these reactions. Without that.
it was impossible to develop a systematic process alive, countless
biochemical terms.
The solution of these problems was first linked two basic discoveries made
in the thirties and forties and have been essential elements of the
revolution in the biological sciences, particularly on the biochemical
level. The first is the discovery of "conservation." Energy of
biochemical reactions in the form of chemical bonds in a particular matter
which received the name of adenosine triphosphate. The second is the
discovery of the principle of combination reactions in biological systems,
ie that the surplus energy formed in response to a course can be transmitted
to another reaction that would not be d 'Itself possible.
These two basic discoveries immediately bring the logic in research on the
biochemical organization of the activity of cells to distinguish
combinations reactions energy. eligible and ineligible. Thus began the
assembly of biochemical elements in separate groups or mechanisms intact,
and when the researchers took fiai to operate on a certain segment, they
found they managed to swallow train, from components, or as Such
physiological process whose biochemists had initiated the development thirty
years ago. ' " [7]
The subsequent progress of science, a deeper penetration of the secrets of
life discovered was able to process more complex than photosynthesis and
respiration, biochemistry did not yet understand. It was primarily the
process of growth and development as well as the phenomena of heredity and
its transmission.
Neither the methods and experiences of physiology, nor those of biochemistry
were unable to highlight the properties of living matter which constitute
the substance of these phenomena. Only with the advent of electron
microscopy that we put into the unknown world of the infinitesimally small
particles of the living cell. Thus the practical results of the revolution.
Intervened in physics were a powerful catalyst for the revolution in
biology. If the power separator ordinary microscope can achieve a
magnification of two to three thousand times, the electron microscope can
magnify objects of study of hundreds of thousand times and even more than a
million times. The amount converts to quality basic opportunities have
opened to the study of microscopic organizations, intimate process taking
place in the living cell.
In entering ever more deeply into the secrets of the process alive,.
biological science learns about the mechanism for the use of genetic
information. Thus, biology was brought to explore the giant molecules of
organic polymers: nucleic acids, proteins and some carbohydrates, ie
training, which play a decisive role in the performance of vital functions
essential. The study of these molecules required methods and processes hoc
analysis and constituted one of the key orientations of a science booming
molecular biology, we talk a little further.
The results of the biological chemistry were and still are today an grazing
tool knowledge of life processes. But the language of chemistry did not
allow itself to penetrate the mysteries of life. The biophysical came to the
rescue. The search continued for solving the problem of living has enormous
methodological and practical importance for the development and improvement
of material production,
Academician G. Frank wrote "What we call the living can not be
translated into language purely chemical. In addition to the list of
reactions involved in the process of exchanging chemical substances, in
addition to the catalytic reactions and chemical kinetics of these
processes, there must be some organization in space (structure) of all
rnacromoléculaires, which is beyond the framework representations purely
chemical. " [8]
This organization, writes G. Frank is not only the location of chemical
processes; acting itself is changing, determines their conduct and organise.
That is why, alongside the chemistry and molecular approaches, we need what
might be called conventional language of 'approaches surmoléculaires
"These approachessurmoléculaires can not already under the sole
jurisdiction of chemistry and biochemistry. We are witnessing here are
qualitatively different processes and chemicals added to the forces of
interaction phenomena characteristics of the system surmoléculaire complex.
The study of these phenomena is usually biophysics or physical chemical
biology " [9]
The biological sciences naturally attach particular importance nature of the
activities of living organisms and their smallest components in the cell and
components of the cell itself. Science has entered into the
inframicroscopique structure of the cell, which allowed him to make the most
unexpected discoveries, forcing a radical revision of current ideas on the
principles biochemical, biophysical and physico-chemical properties of
cellular processes.
"How is born. a new science, a new specialty? "asks P. Thuiflier
thy has not answered both general and satisfactory this question, although
various assumptions have been made. " [10]
This interpretation seems skeptical, because the development of a new
discipline and the birth of a new science does not depend on the identity or
the intellectual originality of ideas. Rather, it depends on the character
of the nature of the subject of science itself method of exposure in the
wider it is the means to achieve an objective, an activity according to a
certain orderly fashion. It is by methodological role that tears the veil to
the extraordinary complex phenomena of nature, society and the human
conscience and directs the science to the release of natural links,
objectives, forcing the researcher to stay on Field facts rigorously
established. For example, lob jet of molecular biology is to study the
events essential activity vital to their elementary levels in the cell and
its components, the nucleus and the cytoplasm, in the tiny intra-cellular
structures, systems the simplest located on the border of living and not
living like virus and bacteriophages, and finally, in systems of biological
macromolecular polymers and proteins nuclides acids that carry out its
essential functions in training live ...
There is a particularly intensive development of molecular biology research
related to problems of proliferation, heredity, structure and. properties of
macromolecular compounds, their biosynthesis and laws of their reproduction
in the process of growth, division and cell development.
In other words, bios macromolecular polymers and nucleic acids are essential
objects of research in molecular biology.
Over the past thirty years, biology has undergone a profound transformation
by the convergence of disciplines for a long time remained independent of
both the problems they saw as the equipment and methodology they used. Thus,
the cellular physiology, genetics, biochemistry, virology, microbiology have
melted into a common discipline, which is now known as the molecular
biology. It aims to interpret the phenomena that take place within living
organisms in office structures and functional interrelationships that occur
between macromolecular constituents of the cell. [11]
In its first stage, molecular biology has sought to analyze the material the
simplest cell, namely the bacterial cell, that some discoveries were made
accessible. such a study. In recent years, the elucidation of the main
structure of biological macromolecules, proteins and nucleic acids, the
interpretation of their functions in terms of structure, recognition of
their biosynthetic pathways and their regulations have renewed our knowledge
of heredity and cellular mechanisms. "
This feels the development and differentiation, more interconnection of
science that results, models and methods of some sciences are becoming more
widely used in other (for example the use of physical and chemical dodèles
in biology and medicine), and this shows the problem of interdisciplinary
research. Another important feature of the current stage of development of
science is to increase the role of constructive elements in scientific
knowledge. "On the one hand. In entire body, others share in somatic
cell cultures taken from the bodies complex.[12] "Because the discovery of the nature and
structure of nuclei acids demonstrates the rationality of the exceptional
nature and organization of his creatures, in fact, nucleic acids are
composed wholly of four elements: the four nucleotide that does differ from
one another by their nitrogen content - adenine, guanine, cytosine, themine.
Thus, the tremendous diversity of. life on. Terre A. always a basic
biochemical perfectly unique and universal. Moreover, the principle of
complementarity, which explains the old secret of heredity, is one of the
essential bases. molecular biology with which it was established that in a
DNA molecule, the amount of guanine is always equal to. the amount of
cytosine, adenine quantity is a égaie. the amount of themine. During the
vital activity of the body, the DNA molecules involved in trade undergo many
cellular damage under the influence of internal and external factors. Thus,
the new directions of development of molecular biology and its revolutionary
continuous progress based on solid methodology.
"It is the combination of organic synthesis and very fruitful, two
methodological approaches. the study of nature and properties of the
simplest components of a complex, and the study of the structure,
organization, the properties of complex body as a whole, forces and
processes that constitute the system as. than anything else.
The key question is how simple it gives birth to the complex, what are the
forces and laws that are operating here, how to structure new properties of
the complex system.
It is a focus of scientific research that part of the molecular levels the
most primitive and the most basic driving è, levels of organization of
increasing complexity,. systems with new properties and functions.[13]
"
The
essential feature of this passage from simple to complex is an integrated
process, we propose the term of fundamentalism to define the orientation of
cognitive science.
If one analyses the development of natural sciences, technical and social,
one finds much in common in their methodology and practice.
Thus, this methodology is it absolutely necessary as regards the creation of
automated systems that the development of the vast majority of complex
programs, as it is to solve the problems of the relationship between the
party and everything between simple and compound. The need for such a
methodological approach is more apparent than ever today as regards the
solving of economic and socio-economic and development programmes in which
we have always dealing with large complex systems to several components .
D'oc current problem 1 "fundamentalism" for all the natural
sciences, technical and social. The mechanism of development of science in
their process of unification of the different branches of science plays an
important role in guiding scientific thought and technology of our century.
11 opens two possibilities for developing and refining the material
productive forces, through which we can see the development of the
revolution in the natural sciences, technical, social interaction and their
dialectic in two aspects:
First, humanity will affect so focused on the processes of organic life and
from it. Raising a colossal effectiveness of social production, and also
increase the possibilities of the man himself - the first productive force
of society - and the perfect considerably.
Secondly, the company will continuously introduce into production the
results of technological and organizational organic life> and. From then
allow a new scientific and technological revolution which, it has every
reason to think, leave it far behind the possibilities opened up by the
current scientific and technological revolution.
This revolution in the biological sciences wakes up the
"technical", "" technology "and the organization of
operating systems which exceed in complexity all the systems that man has
been able to create and productivity have never seen in practice the global
industry at the same time that capacity, an infinite number of dimensions,
economic performance and reliability unimaginable.
The active phase of the revolution in the biological sciences began, it
seems, most recently as physics and chemistry, and its practical results may
not be as clear and important that the results achieved by physicists and
chemists, but it is already visible today that the possibilities, both
cognitive and practical, opened by the revolution in science are of a
magnitude that they can serve as a springboard â. a new revolution in
science and information technology, which means the development of physical
sciences, chemical, biological as the basis for development and
differentiation branches scientific computing,
THE
CONFERENCE OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
On 13 May 2008 next section of molecular and cellular biology, genomics of
the Academy of Sciences will organize a conference on epigenetics and
cellular memory. This is a new discipline of molecular and cellular biology,
genomics. The question that arises What is epigenetics?
It is often at Conrad Waddington (1905-1975) attributed the invention of the
term "epigenetic" in 1942, to appoint "the branch of biology
that studies the cause-effect relationships between genes and their products
, Showing the phenotype. " The first mention of epigenetics in
literature has emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, but it can be traced
back the origin of the concept to Aristotle (384-322 BC. AD). He believed in
a epigenesis: ie developing an organic form derived from individual informs.
This view was contested the main argument against a form of development from
tiny body already trained. Even today, the question of how far we are
preprogrammed or shaped by the environment continues to arouse controversy.
The field of epigenetics has emerged to fill the gap between innate and
acquired. In the twenty-first century, the most common definition of
epigenetics is "the study of heritable changes in gene function, taking
place without alteration of the DNA sequence." But see what scientists
who work in this burgeoning field have to say on the subject…
"Epigenetics has always been all these weird and wonderful things that
genetics is not explain. " [14]
"DNA is like a tape recorder carrier of information, but that is
useless without a tape recorder[15].
Epigenetics somehow plays the role of tape. According Jörn Walter[16]
"I take a photo of a computer and I comparerais DNA to the hard disk
and the software epigenome. You can access certain information on the hard
drive through the programs installed on the computer. But there are some
areas that are protected by passwords and others who are not. I would say
that we try to understand why there are passwords for certain areas while
others are free to access. "For Gunter Reuter[17]"
There are about two metres of DNA into a nucleus that is only a few
micrometers. We try to understand the mechanisms that allow access to DNA,
despite the tiny size of the kernel. "
In essence, genetic and epigenetic switches determine whether genes are
active or not. These are proteins encoded by the DNA sequence, called
transcription factors, which play the role of genetic switches. The
epigenetic switches, they consist of chemical modifications of DNA and
histone proteins associated with him, as well as changes in the structure of
chromatin, the complex. proteins and DNA that constitutes the chromosomes.
Moshe studies the role of these switches in biological processes as diverse
as type II diabetes, kidney disease polycystique, development of organs such
as heart and liver, and the transformation of cells into cancerous cells.
Increasingly the revolution in genetic engineering has invaded space
science. "Information management in the kernel requires that a portion
of genetic information is extremely compacted in the genome. Moreover,
another part of the genetic information must be turned on and walk
continuously, as the genes so-called "household" for example. So
epigenetics looks a bit like the way it organizes his papers at home: we
keep handy those that are used regularly, but range old report cards in
boxes that are being Grenier.[18]
"You can probably compare the distinction between genetics and
epigenetics the difference between writing a book and reading. Once the book
is written, the text (genes or information stored in the form of DNA) will
be the same in all copies distributed to the public. However, every reader
of a book will have a slightly different interpretation of history, which
will bring him to emotions and personal projections over the chapters. In a
very similar, epigenetics allow several readings of a fixed matrix (the book
or the genetic code), giving rise to various interpretations, depending on
the conditions under which we interrogate this matrix. "
Thomas Jenuwein think that more than 50 years have passed since the first
publication by
Watson and Crick on the three-dimensional structure of the DNA double helix.
Now that the Darwinian theory of evolution has found its way into people's
minds, the discovery that DNA code for hereditary characteristics is widely
accepted. When Crick left us the extent of media coverage has shown how this
concept was recognized well beyond the scientific community. However, we
start to realize that the theories of evolution focused on genes have a
limited scope. The genetic master plan, just like a complex musical score,
remains lifeless without an orchestra of cells (musicians) and their épigénotypes
(instruments) to interpret.
Science lifts the veil today on how to play our partition genetic
interpretation is apparently radically different from one generation to
another without the DNA sequence has undergone change. The field of
epigenetics seeks to determine how the mechanisms regulating the maturation
of molecular genes affect the function genomics. Among the epigenetic
factors, there are both the spatial organization, such coiling of DNA around
proteins called histones (chromatin), biochemical and labelling.
There are hundreds of different types of cells in the body. Although each
has the same starting point, the characteristics of a neuron are quite
different from those of a liver cell. For some 30 000 genes that account the
human genome, the importance of silence, as in any orchestral
interpretation, should not be underestimated. As the cells grow, their
destiny is governed by the selective use and putting in silence genes. This
process depends on epigenetic factors. The profiles of DNA methylation plays
a role in all sorts of phenomena which genes are turned on and off, whether
the stain on a petal purple petunia or development of malignancies.
The inability to reduce to silence some genes can generate a dangerous
cacophony. An insufficient methylation of DNA can alter the organization of
chromatin, which then influence the genes to be put in silence after cell
division. An excessive methylation can destroy the work of tumor suppressor
genes and DNA repair, which have a protective role. The épimutations of
this kind have been observed in all kinds of cancers. These discoveries
epigenetic pave the way for the exploration of new therapeutic
possibilities.
Epigenetics also provides the genetic material means to respond to changing
environmental conditions. Although plants have no nervous system nor brain,
their cells have the ability to memorize the seasonal changes. In some
species biennial, this ability is linked to their ability to bloom in
spring, when they detect ambient temperatures more lenient. Research on
certain types of watercress have shown that exposure to cold during the
winter causes structural changes in chromatin, which reduce the genes of
flowering in silence. These genes are reactivated in the spring when the
days longer and hotter become suitable for breeding.
The environment can also cause changes that will affect future generations.
Laboratory studies on mice consanguineous have recently demonstrated that a
change of diet may influence their offspring. They may have a brown coat,
yellow or spotted depending on how the agouti gene is methylated during
embryonic development. When females were in gestation with a diet rich in
methyl supplements such as folic acid and vitamin B12, especially their
offspring has developed a brown coat. Most small set by the World mice
witnesses (who had not received supplements) had a yellow coat.
Like the conductor inspires the dynamics of the execution of a symphony,
epigenetic factors govern the interpretation of DNA within each cell.
Understanding these factors could revolutionize evolutionary biology and
development and influence on practices ranging from medicine to agriculture.
In response to Watson, "the genetic alphabet would rather God's word
and its translation would hand."
Moshe YANIV, the Academy of
Sciences, Institute Pasteur, Paris has interpreted the question Epigenetics
and Development[19] said al clearly "Our text genetic DNA, is the
same in all cells of the body. Yet the information given by the text was not
read in the same way in our cells, and this contributes to the formation of
various tissues and organs that make up our individual. This
the cell line is permitted by changes in proteins that coat our DNA,
histones, and by methylation of DNA or RNA molecules. These changes
lachromatine are transmitted during the duplication of our chromosomes,
allowing them to keep in mind during cell division. Abnormalities of these
epigenetic changes can lead to various diseases including cancer. This panel
discussion will illustrate the recent progress in this new discipline which
represents an important shift in our understanding of heredity and the
biologica[20]l
variety. " As for Adrian Bird[21]
he studied Adrian studying the methylation of DNA, ie chemical changes
thereof encoding information that is added to that of the DNA sequence. The
DNA methylation plays a major role in putting in silence genes and Adrian
found proteins that bind to methylated DNA sequences and participate in this
mechanism. Mice that lack one of these proteins, MeCP2, develop a disease
similar to human neurological disease[22]
called Rett syndrome. In seeking to identify the genes that are activated by
inappropriately in mice deficient in MeCP2, Adrian hopes to advance
therapeutic strategies for this disease. "In his presentation to the
Conference of the Academy of Sciences Andrien Bird believes that" DNA
vertebrates covalent DNA is modified by methylation of cytosine in the
dinucleotide sequence 5'CG3 "and that thought is regarded as a form of
cellular memory. One way to understand the "epigenetic" brand, is
to study proteins that "read" methyl-CG signals in the genome.
MeCP2 is of particular interest that mutations affecting its gene causes
Rett syndrome, the most common inherited form of mental retardation
affecting women. the molecular level, to speak briefly on the structure and
dynamics of MeCP2 binding to methylated DNA. At a higher level
of complexity, experiences that test the reversibility of Rett syndrome-like
symptoms MeCP2 null-mouse will be described.
Combined and molecular neurobiological information supports the idea that
the functions of MeCP2 maintain programs gene expression in neurons mature.
" [23]
Robert Feil would like to
know how genes printed, which intended to be activated or deactivated is
predetermined by their parental origin, influence the development of the
embryo into a fully formed body and that of extra-embryonic tissue such as
the placenta. A fairly large number of genes have been discovered printed
but you do not understand very well how cells know which genes were
inherited from the mother or the father. The DNA methylation, a chemical
modification of DNA, contributes to this process of recognition in the
embryo. Robert seeks to ascertain how changes. The chemical histone proteins
could play a role in the formation of the footprint.[24]
According to Robert Feil "Among placental mammals, the genome inherited
from the mother and one inherited from the father are not functionally
equal. They are, during pregnancy, both required for a healthy development
of the embryo. The functional necessity of both parental genomes estdue a
different marking between the sperm and egg. These epigenetic marks on the
parental chromosomes persist during development and allow the allelic
expression of certain genes from the copy is maternal or paternal. About a
hundred genes are controlled by this phenomenon epigénétique called
"footprint genomics." Most of these genes under the imprint plays
a fundamental role in fetal development and growth, while others affect the
behaviour after the birth. Thus, it is not surprising that disturbances
pathological del'empreinte genomics lead to disease and behavioural
development in humans. Some disturbances in the footprint are also involved
in cancer. After an introduction on the biological significance of the
impression genomics, I will present some examples of recent research on the
molecular mechanisms of the impression genomics. "In other words, the
footprint genomics and its role in developments in placental mammals, the
maternal and paternal inherited genomes are functionally not the same thing.
Both are required for embryonic development and well-being during the
gestation period. Techniques need both parental genomes is a consequence of
differential "Épigénétiques marking" in the egg by sperm. These
differential marks on the chromosomes (fingerprints) persist in the
developing embryo, and after birth, and transmit the presence or the
expression of genes from either their mother or father copy. About a hundred
genes are
controlled by this phenomenon called epigenetics "footprint
genomics." Most printed
genes known to play a key role in fetal development
and growth, others influence behavior after the birth. Not
surprisingly, therefore, pathological disturbance footprint genomics gives
rise to
related to growth and behaviour of disease in humans, and is associated
with cancer as well. After you submit the biological significance of
footprint genomics, I will present some examples of recent research
on the molecular mechanisms
underlying.
As for Giacomo CAVALLI[25],
it uses a fly vinegar as a model organism to study how proteins groups
Polycomb Trithorax and regulate development. For an organization to develop
properly, the subset of genes has to be activated at the right time and in
good cells. The group Polycomb proteins disable certain genes, whereas
proteins Trithorax group to activate other. Giacomo has discovered that
these are specific DNA elements that determine whether or not certain key
genes of development are activated or not by this mechanism when new cells
are formed. With the help of colored markers and sophisticated microscopy
techniques, Giacomo examine how these elements can ensure that remote areas
on chromosomes can come closer to each other.
The
truth is that "epigenetics respect to the transmission of hereditary
characteristics of each cell type in the same body. Many biological
processes essential for the development and adult life depend phenomena
"epigenetic", ie that different cells and tissues acquire
"identities" different, even if the DNA of each cell is identical.
These identities are kept permanently throughout the life of cells and are
passed on to daughter cells so hereditary. We now know that this is the
chromatin structure which is the identity of this cell, which transmits the
daughter cells within the same lineage. But the structure of different
chromosomal regions is regulated by factors called Polycomb "and"
trithorax. " The Polycomb proteins lead to the formation of structures
condensed and inactive, while proteins trithorax open the chromatin and
allow the DNA to express its genetic information to obtain cellular RNAs and
proteins. We showed that the Polycomb proteins and trithorax can transmit a
hereditary memory states activated and repressed by their target genes. We
seek to understand the mechanisms underlying this memory and their role
during normal development and in the context of the emergence of cancers.
"In other words in the field of Epigenetics regard to the transmission
of hereditary traits that distinguish each type of cell in an organism. Many
biological processes depend on epigenetic components that are capable of
driving different cells in different cells States fate despite the fact that
they share the same DNA sequence. These cellular identities can be
transmitted by cell division, this implies cellulairemémoire the regulation
of DNA in chromatin emballage.Les proteins Polycomb group (PCG) are able to
transmit the cellular memory of silence States of gene expression, while
trithorax group (trxG) proteins, silent struggle with a function of
activation that allows them target
genes to express themselves in the types of cells. Our research
showed that these two groups of proteins can transmit the memory gene
States of expression throughout development and even through meiosis
in
descendants. We are therefore trying to decipher the molecular mechanisms
that are responsible for the
maintenance of this memory under normal conditions development, and understand how the disturbance of memory cell
generates diseases such as cancer. " [26]
Minoo
Rassoulzadegan[27]
and his staff of Inserm Unit 636 "Genetics of normal development and
pathological" *, describe a mode of inheritance which does not comply
with the laws of Mendel. It involves the transfer RNA molecules associated
with the genome - in particular the recently discovered class of microARNs-,
in the head of sperm. This very special heredity was identified in the case
of an epigenetic modification called hereditary paramutation, in mice. The
paramutation used in this work affects a gene essential for development
whose modification can be followed by a change of colour coat. These results
may be closer to work very recent showing the presence of RNA molecules in
the human sperm, and bring about their possible functions of the new
assumptions.
The
change is an epigenetic modulation of the expression of genes or groups of
genes which, unlike the mutation does not change in structure (nucleotide
sequence) of DNA. It is nevertheless passed on a stable during cell
division. One of the most studied examples of this kind of variation is the
inactivation of one of the X chromosomes in female mammals. This type of
change is today considered important in various diseases, including cancer.
In plants, a class of epigenetic change is considered as
"paramutation". It is characterized by its property to be not only
stable during the development of a body (somatic level) but to be
transmitted to offspring during cross over several generations (germinal
level) with distributions different from those predicted by mendelian.
Comments earlier laboratory and an American group suggested they might exist
in animals. Heredity paramuté character does not follow the rules mendéliennes,
the majority of offspring showing the change. Although transmission by the
mother or the father is also effective, Minoo Rassoulzadegan and his
colleagues decided to study the formation of male sexual cells, easier
access. There is a state paramuté an abnormal accumulation in the
precursors of germ cells (spermatids) degradation products of the messenger
RNA Kit and two microARNs specific gene. Recently discovered, microARNs
constitute a class of complex molecules very small (20-22 nucleotides), each
with a specific gene or group of genes. An important role was very recently
recognized in controlling the expression of genes at different levels:
degradation of messenger RNAs, inhibition of translation and modified
structures of the chromatin.
This
accumulation unusual RNA into precursors germinal led researchers of Inserm
to examine sperm from males paramutés. Through various techniques, they
observed a significant amount of RNA molecules, while the sperm of normal
mice did contain very little.
To show
that the transmission of epigenetic change was due to the transfer of these
RNAs during fertilization, RNA molecules (including two microARNs specific
Kit) were introduced by microinjection of a fertilized egg cells from a
normal couple (1 stage embryos cell). After relocation in surrogate mothers,
a fraction (50 to 60%) of embryos treated produce animals carrying the
modification and themselves capable of transmitting it to their offspring.
The other microARNs used as witnesses not cause any change of colour coat.
). It is an alteration of the character determined by a gene when it was
transmitted by a parent heterozygous who he was facing a form (allele) moved
(there was talk of "conversation interchromosomique"). On the one
hand, contrary to the law of Mendel, which states that the alleles were left
unchanged during segregation during the crossing, is not respected. On the
other hand, the amendment is stable and will be transmitted to offspring,
although the sequence of nucleotides in the gene "paramuté", so
the genetic text itself is not modified. The first case of paramutation
observed in mice was an amendment to the wild form of a gene (Kit) in the
offspring of a heterozygous with a mutated form. The mouse
heterozygous (Kit-/Kit +) is characterized by white coat (tail and feet), a
class of characters visible, and therefore easily detectable that the likes
geneticist since Mendel. This phenotype identical to that of mutant is
transmitted in the absence of the allele inducer, so by animals carrying two
alleles structurally intact, and that over several generations. The signal
inducing altered state was found to be the transfer RNA molecules in the
embryo at the moment of fertilization. We observed a significant burden RNA
in the sperm of males "paramutés." Experiments reconstruction
based on the injection into the egg fertilized mouse normal RNA of these
animals, as well as synthetic RNAs and microARNs specific locus, have
established their role inducer. We have recently extended this mode of
hereditary transmission over several generations of pathological situations,
including a pathology in mice reproducing a serious cardiac malformation
(Wagner et al., 2008). It can offer a model for diseases so-called
"family," observed repeatedly between parents and children or
between brothers and sisters, while in many cases, it could not identify a
genetic alteration of the text (changing) . Beyond the inheritance of a
genetic text, we now consider heredity its modes of reading. " [28]
Marcel MECHALI, [29]considers
that the harmonious development of an embryo requires a delicate balance
between proliferation and differentiation of cells. A similar regulatory
control the renewal of our cells in our adult life. Each division is
non-seuleument our genome that we must duplicate, but his organization for
differentiation incurred. Marcel interested in the role of replication
origins in that balance. The research conducted in his laboratory has shown
that the origins of replication were regulated during development, in
conjunction with a remodeling of chromosomal domains. Marcel also identifies
new factors replication, and his team discovered the role of CDT1 and MCM8.
How do these factors could be deregulated in cancer is a question asked by
his laboratory.
In his presentation
entitled The inactivation of the X chromosome: how extinguish a chromosome
with the NRA Claire ROUGEULLE,[30]
Pasteur Institute, Paris says that "The inactivation of the X
chromosome is a fundamental process that ensures, among mammals, a strength
equivalent gene among individuals male (with 1 X chromosome) and females
(with 2 X). The inactivation takes place very early in the early embryonic
development of females and is characterized, in fine, by the extinction of
transcription in virtually all of some two thousand genes carried by the
chromosome affected. The inactivation is often seen as a paradigm of
epigenetic regulation insofar as it implies that two homologous chromosomes
(the two X chromosomes) behave differently within a nucleus, one active and
the other being inactivated . In a surprising, it is known that the main
actor of this process is a non-coding RNA, the expression from one of the
two X chromosomes leads to inactivation of the latter. How RNA can it
extinguish an entire chromosome, and how this RNA is itself controlled are
two crucial issues to be discussed. " [31]
CONCLUSIONS
Our research has asked these questions twenty years ago have been the
subject of the Conference of the Academy of Sciences but I can highlight the
three basic functions of the Academy of Sciences.
Twenty
years ago before the jury academic and scientific I submitted the following
statement.
On
what grounds can we ponder over the nature of science classification and
what links can we establish between the classification and computer science?
Where do the ideas on computer philosophical foundations come from as a base
for the foundation of the Academy of Sciences and of the National Center for
Scientific and Technical Research of Kurdistan? Do these ideas come from an
issue on the historical development of the science classification or do they
come from another methodological or epistemological nature? In other words,
does the history of the philosophy of science need such a theoretical and
philosophical explanation of the issue on the scientific reorganization of
knowledge and its foundations? First, how can the opposition between both
notions constitute a unity, especially with notions that do not stand in the
same context? On one hand science classification is an old issue that goes
back to Aristotle and which was a more philosophical issue than a scientific
one in the Middle Ages, so that is an encyclopedic issue. On the other hand
computer science gets a very varied meaning which has directly no links with
the notions of science classification which are not on the same level. .
First,
a prevailing tendency is found among French and European computer scientists
and there is an approach to the definition of "a computer science
"or" computer sciences "or" computer scientific
branches" which is linked to the definition of technology. The computer
scientists of today are looking for the nature of only one science "
(the computer science) and they reject the division of the intellect and the
differentiation of sciences, their detachment from computer technology,
without considering the scientific and technical progress. On one hand this
belief of one science coincides with the positivist philosophy which rejects
its role of «Science of sciences ". On the other hand the tendency
stems from the thought of Marx and developed by Engels, defends the
unification of the human science with the natural science in order to
create one science only....
Under
those conditions, "is there one or several computer sciences"
J.D Warnier asked. Then he added «as far as the axioms and the basic
principles are concerned, there is not an only science ". What are the
differences between «the axioms and the basic principles «of computer
science and those of philosophy? If there are no differences, how can we
study " as many computer branches as we discover branches of the human
activity which need word processing that is to say data processing, not only
as far as applied sciences are concerned but also in the technological
structure of the scientific and computer branches ? How can we tell the
fundamental computer science in general from management computers,
scientific computers, telecomputers, telematics or the computers of
satellites which have different missions? From the computer science
analysis, can we introduce the field the classification of techniques
that is not made any longer according to the products but to the processes
in order to establish links with the science classification ? In other words
the classification was interpreted by the philosophers of the 19th century
like the connection of sciences and it didn't lead to the reduction of
philosophy to an only science as Marx pointed out: «how will natural
science later embrace human sciences as well as human sciences include
natural science, and will there be an only science?"
What will be the function of computer science in the fulfillment of the
scientific combination? Will there be an "only computer science» or
several computer sciences within the process of the realization of the
combination? But we may ponder over the origin of those computer scientists
looking for the nature of an "only science" (computer science) and
who reject the diversification and the differentiation of the computer
scientific branches. Where do they go to? Which tendency of science do they
go to? To an «only science» as Marx suggests or to the «only science»
developed by the neopositivists of the logical positivism? If those
scientists get close to the Marxist conception how will the natural science
embrace the human science? But if they get closer to the neopositivist
doctrine or to the logical positivism what will their function in the
sciences centre be if the human science includes the natural science? Which
criteria allow us to distinguish the logical analysis of the science which
claims to organize the scientific knowledge within the scope of an
"only science"? What is the meaning of the value of an "only
science" for the science philosophy of our century? How can we look for
the philosophical foundations of computer science if there are some
differences between the "axioms and the basic principles" of
computer science and philosophy?
First
question:
What is data processing? Is it a science, a technology or various
techniques? What are its aims? If it is considered like a science, is there
one or several computer sciences? What would its function in the science
classification be? If it is considered like a technology and if we define
technology like the science of the scientific and the technical rules of the
production process, then, what is its function as a physical, technical and
mathematical science, in the science classification? What are the
differences between technology in general and computer technology? If it is
considered as a technical whole, what are its connections with science and
the human being? What links can we establish between the science
classification and the various application fields of computer science? What
is the computer science methodology? What are the features of a pattern of
the science classification and computer science?
Second
question:
What is classification? What does the science classification mean nowadays?
What are the aims of science? What about their classification) How can they
be in harmony with the numerous human experiences. What is the
specific characteristic of the issue for the human science philosophy ?
Third
question: is there a computer science classification? What are the bases of
the various scientific branches of computer science? What links can we
establish between science classification and the scientific and technical
revolution?
Fourth
question: What are the prospects of the scientific development for a new
humanistic civilization and what conclusions can we draw?
METHODOLOGY
For
our philosophical processes, we have used the dialectical method. First, we
have pondered over computer science by developing the logical and
mathematical basis and the linguistic basis of computer science. Then, we
have taken interest in the historical issue of science classification and we
have intended to show the connection between science from the natural rules,
its outcomes and the objective links between the function of the various
sciences within their development and their own changes. Finally, we have
studied the physical chemical and biological science as the basis of the
differentiation of the scientific branches of computer science. We have
analyzed the classic and modern computer system, the dialectical process of
human knowledge in philosophy and computer science (the artificial
intelligence and the foundations of the scientific knowledge) to establish
the links between philosophy and the scientific revolutions and the aspects
of a new conception of humanism in the scope of a new science
classification.
What
is data processing is it a science a technology or does it embrace all
techniques and tools?
According
to the Academy of Science, data processing is "the science of the
rational processing, especially with automatic information machines
considered as the basis of human knowledge in the technical and social
fields. "This definition provided by the Academy of Science is
our starting point but we have broadened it.
First,
computer science is a physical, technical and mathematical science linked to
the second part of the natural science classification. That implies:
1.
Computer science is both a rational processing science and a systematic,
logical and mathematical science. It needs the analysis of the logical and
mathematical basis of computer science (the binary logic and the Boolean
logic)
2.
Computer science is the science of the automatic data processing with
machines and computers.
So,
it is both a physical computer science and a technological computer science
that implicates the other scientific branches like telematics or
telecomputers which is linked to the study and the creation of the
components and the electrical and mechanical subset that are part of the
creation of computers. It requires the analysis of the physical and
technological foundations of computer science.
3.
As a science of the rational and automatic analysis of information
considered as the basis of human knowledge and communication computer
science it leads to the creation of several scientific disciplines : the
epistemological computer science, the knowledge engineering, the artificial
intelligence, Experts systems, the survey of the shape, the synthesis of the
word, the interaction between men and machines, the development of the
communication engineering in the field of telecomputers and the computer
technology of satellites.
4.
As an applied science of production, computer s c i e n c e it has some
results as far as the production diversification and the scientific work
division are concerned.
So,
we have seen the logical and mathematical foundations of computer science.
The Boolean logic is used in the systematization of the scientific knowledge
in computers as a tool to argue. It is said that this mathematical logic is
also the result of the logical and mathematical thought of Leibniz and that
it is the basis of the philosophical and linguistic ideas developed in Ars
Comniatoria (1666). Then we have divided the historical activity into four
basic periods and we have studied the linguistic foundations of computer
science "from Lavoisier's pictures which express the world into a new
symbolical or expressive chemistry till the sophisticated classifications
from which the living can enter a systematical reason" as Professor
Dagognet wrote. The basic idea of his philosophy deals with the ORDER of
reality and the linked possibility that the scientific knowledge cultivates.
From this point of view we have analyzed the different languages: COBOL,
FORTRAN, List Processing, ALGOL, BASIC, PROLOG, PASCAL. The growth of the
languages suited to computers relatively corresponds to the needs of
society. The scientific improvement based on the fundamental research in
science widens the field of the labor force with the differentiation of the
software technology.
So,
we have briefly studied the structure of the computers called digital
computers as opposed to analogical computers. They deal with digital
information that is to say the continuous and discontinuous analogical and
digital information which is the basis of computers classification. This
technology gets a final logic in the material and social practical
experience of the world. Indeed, "technology implies a reflection on
the mode of connection. It is the place of change from the scientific
rationality to the rationality of human science. So technology is the
science of the control of information (especially scientific information)
between men"
Nevertheless there is historically a deep and converse connection in an
explicit and systematic way between technology and science classification.
The most remarkable of these classifications is Ampere's. So what is
classification?
What
is classification?
In
French, the classification supposes a scientific attention and a theoretical
order, I mean, it is built on a rational knowledge on the classified things
and it allows one to understand them.
Classification
is an example of logical process used in science or in practice.
Classifications are made according to the basic characteristics of the
things. Classification emphasizes the similarity and the differences between
things. So, the classification is a cognitive activity whose objective is to
divide up the beings according to their similarity. It is a representation
of the whole systematic knowledge, especially in science, of a system of
divisions and subdivisions. Sometimes, when it is only a matter of
organizing things in a system, we base our divisions conveniently even if
things have no links between one another.
Classification
is the share-out of things in several coordinated and subordinated sets. It
is the way to organize concepts according to the connections we want to
emphasize: connection from gender to species, connection from the whole to
the part, genealogical and hierarchical connections and so on ...In the
field we deal with three main kinds of classification. First, there is
statistics, that is to say the automatic classification that allows us to
draw, thanks to algorithm, several partitions according to the individuals.
Then there is the biological classification found by Linne. It is based on
the obvious similarity between species that are placed in the same set. But
this kind of classification is not very common. Finally there is the
classification philosophically speaking.
So,
we have considered in detail four main stages in the development of science
and knowledge: the immediate intuition stage, the analysis stage, the
synthesis stage based on the former analysis (the upset object of knowledge
is mentally pieced together in its entity and in its former reality). At the
stage the differentiation of knowledge has been doubly characterized: first,
according to the material object, it is different from the former science;
then, according to the lower form of the nearest movement thanks to which it
is linked to the former science. The characteristics of a science and the
differentiation of its knowledge get objective foundations on each new
science. Such a connection can be made because the lower form of the
movement enters the upper form just as the upper form just as the movement
of a molecule enters the physýcal state of gas (thermodynamics. So, this
dialectical unity of the material movement and of the
scientific
knowledge on the real world, constitutes a real basis on which you can build
a model of the dialectical classification of sciences and you can give each
science an accurate definition that can indicate its place in the new sketch
of science classification. For example, the nuclear science is a science you
can deal with at the edge of its often fleeting experimental facts. This
science makes sophisticated materials intervene. The problem posed to the
physicians is the following: which model of the nucleus can we propose to
explain the observations and the experimentation in keeping with the rules
of atomic physics If nuclear physics is a scientific branch of
atomic physics, so, it has given rise to energy and has become
differentiated from the nuclear chemistry and the other scientific branches
of atomic physics. How can we explain the basis of the law of changing from
quantity to quality from a science to another as far as the development of
the basic contradiction is concerned? Will this contradiction lead up to a
new approach of the classification?
Which
model of science classification can we propose to the problematical unity of
the scientific knowledge regarding science computer science in keeping with
the nature? Can the atomic model of classification be based on the
dialectical (material is both divisible and continuous and at the same time
and neither of them) and on the dialectical atomic components, and can we
analyze and express any historical experience of science in the unity of the
scientific organization of knowledge? In other words, will this approach
establish the common foundation of the whole fields of knowledge? Explain
the classification of dialectical rules the dialectical contradiction
indivisible and unity of the
From
this viewpoint we have tackled the basic principles of science
classification. There are subjective, objective and comparative principles
of science classification. First we have seen the subjective principle in
Bacon, Hobbes, d'Alembert, Diderot as well as the rational classification in
Comte according to the principle of coordination, the natural classification
of science in Andre Marie Ampere. Then we have analyzed science
classification according to the objective principle in Descartes, Gassendi:
the artificial classification in Augustin and Cournot : the
characteristics of the development of science classification in Germany
thanks to Kant, Scheling, Hegel and the logic of the scientific connection
in Marx. Finally we have analysed the dialectical classification based on
the principle of subordination in F.Engels. |