Dr Ali KILIÇ

    The Nature of Science

           classification

                    and

         computer Science

                       İn be loving memory of Prof.Sevgi Kılıç

                           By

                        Dr Ali KILIÇ

                       Doctuer in philosophy of science

                For Congres Marx İnternational III

                        Universite Paris X

                     26-29 Septembre 2001

 

                                      INTRODUCTION

   On what grounds can we ponder over the nature of science classification and what links can we establish between the classification and computer science ? Where do the ideas on computer philosophical foundations come from ? Do these ideas come from an issue on the historical development of science classification or do they come from another methodological or epistemological nature ? In other words, does the history of the philosophy of science need such a theorical and philosophical explaination of the issue on the scientific reorganization of knowledge and of its foundations ? First, how can the opposition between both notions constitute a unity, especially with notions that don't stand in the same context ? On one hand science classification is an old issue that goes back to Aristotle and which was a more philosophical issue than a scientific one in the Middle Ages, so , that is an encyclopaedic issue. On the other hand computer science gets a very varied meaning which has directly no links with the notions of science classification which aren't on the same level. .

First, a prevailing tendency is found among French and European computer scientists and there is an approach to the definition of " a computer science " or " computer sciences " or " computer scientific branches" which is linked to the definition of technology. The computer scientists of today are looking for the nature of an " only science " ( computer science ) and they reject the division of the intellect and the differentiation of sciences, their detachment from computer technology, without considering the scientific and technical progress. On one hand this belief of an only science coincides with the positivist philosophy which rejects its role of " Science of sciences ". On the other hand the tendency stemmed from the thought of Marx and developped by Engels, defends the unification of the human science with the natural science in order to 22  create an only science....

 

Under these conditions, " is there one or several computer science (1) " asked J.D Warnier. Then he added " as far as the axioms and the basic principles are concerned, there isn't an only science ". What are the differences between " the axioms and the basic principles " of computer science and those of philosophy ? If there are no differences, how can we study " as many computer branches as we discover branches of the human activity which need word processing thats to  say  data processıng, not only as far as  applied sciences are concerned but also in the technological structure of the scientific and computer branches ? How can we tell the fundamental computer science in general from management computers, scientific computers, telecomputers, telematıcs or the computers of satellıtes whıch have dıfferent  mıssıoms? From the computer scıence analysıs,can we ıntroduce ın

made any longer according to the products but to the processes (2) in order to establish links with the science classification ? In other words the classification was interpreted by the philosophers of the 19th century like the connection of sciences and it didn't lead to the reduction of philosophy to an only science as Marx pointed out : " how will natural science later embrace human sciences as well as human sciences include natural science, and will there be an

only science(3) ?" What will be the function of computer science in the fulfilment of the scientific combination ? Will there be an " only computer science " or several computer sciences within the process of the realization of the combination ? But we may ponder over the origin of those computer scientists looking for the nature of an "only science" ( computer science ) and who reject the diversification and the differentiation of the computer scientific branches. Where do they go to ? Which tendency of science do they go to ? To an " only science " as Marx suggests or to the " only science " developped by the neopositivists of the logical positivism ? If those scientists get close to the marxist conception how will the natural science embrace the human science? But if they get closer to the neopositivist doctrine or to the logical positivism what will be their function in the sciences centre if the human science includes the natural science ? What criterion allow us to distinguish the logical analysis of the science which claims to organize the scientific knowledge within the scope of an " only science "? What is the meaning of the value of an " only science " for the science philosophy of our century ? How can we look for the philosophical foundations of computer science if there are some differences between the " axioms and the basic principles " of computer science and philosophy ?

First question : What's data processing ? Is it a science, a technology or various techniques ? What are its aims ? If it is considered like a science, is there one or several computer science ? What would be its function in the science classification? If it is considered like a technology and if we

define technology like the science of the scientific and the technical rules of the production process, then, what is its function as a physical, technical and mathematical science, in the science classification ? What are the differences between technology in general and computer technology ? If it is considered as a technical whole, what are its connections with science and human being ? What links can we establish between the science classification and the various application fields of computer science ? What is the computer science methodology ? What are the features of a pattern of the science classification and computer science ?

Second            question : What's classification ? What does the science classification mean nowadays ? What are the aims of science ? What's about their classification ? How can they be in harmony with the numerous human experiences ? What is the specific characteristic of the issue for the human science philosophy ?

Third question : is there a computer science classification ? What are the basis of the various scientific branches of computer science ? What links can we establish between science classification and the scientific and technical revolution

Fourth question : What are the prospects of the scientific development for a new humanistic civilization and what conclusions can we draw ?

 

 

METHODOLOGY

For our philosophical processes, we've used the dialectical method. First, we've pondered over computer science by developping the logical and mathematical basis and the linguistic basis of computer science. Then, we've taken interest in the historical issue of science classification and we've intended to show the connection between science from the natural rules, its outcomes and the objective links between the function of the various sciences within their         develop­

ment and their own changes. Finally, we've studied the physical and chemical and biological science as foundation of the differentiation of the scientific branches of computer science. We've analysed the classic and modern computer system, the dialectical process of human knowledge in philosophy and computer science (the artificial intelligence and the foundations of the scientific knowledge) to establish the links between philosophy and the scientific revolutions and the angles of a new conception of humanism in the scope of a new science classification.

What is data processing ? Is it a science ? A technology or the whole techniques and tools ?

According to the Academy of Science, data processing is " the science of the rational processing, especially with automatic information machines considered as the basis of human knowledge in the technical and social fields. " This definition by the Academy of Science is our starting point. But we've broadened it.

First, computer science is a physical, technical and

mathematical science linked to the second part of the natural science classification. It implies :

1. Computer science is both a rational processing science and a systematic, logical and mathematical science. It needs the analysis of the logical and mathematical basis of computer science (the binary logic and the Boolean logic)

2. Computer science is the science of the automatic data             processing with machines  and computers.

So, it is both a physical computer science and a technological computer science that implicates the other scientific branches like telematics or telecomputers which is linked to the study and the creation of the components and the electrical and mechanical subset that are part of the creation of computers. It requires the analysis of the physical and technological foundations of computer science.

3. As a science of the rational and automatic analysis of information considerd as the basis of human knowledge and communication computer science leads to the creation of several scientific disciplines : the epistemological computer science, the knowledge engineering, the artificial intelligence, Experts systems, the survey of the shape, the synthesis of the word, the interaction between men and machines, the development of the communication engineering in the field of telecomputers and the computer technology of satellites.

4. As an applied science of production, computer s c i e n c e

         has                   some                   results                   as                   far                   as                   the                   production diversification and the scientific work division are concerned.

So, we've seen the logical and mathematical foundations of computer science. The Boolean logic is used in the systematization of the scientific knowledge in computers as a tool to argue. It is said that this mathematical logic is also the result of the logical and mathematical thought of Leibniz and that it is the basis of the philosophical and linguistic ideas developped in Ars Comniatoria (1666).

Then we've divided the historical activity into four basic periods and we've studied the linguistic foundations of computer science "from Lavoisier's pictures which express the world into a new symbolical or expressive chemistry till the sophisticated classifications from which the living can enter a systematical reason" as Professor Dagognet wrote. The basic idea of his philosophy deals wilth the ORDER of reality and the linked possibility that the scientific knowledge cultivates. From this point of view we've analysed the different languages : COBOL, FORTRAN, List Processing, ALGOL, BASIC, PROLOG, PASCAL. The growth of the languages suited to computers relatively corresponds to the needs of the society. the scientific improvement based on the fundamental research in science widens the field of the labour force with the differentiation of the software technology.

So, we've briefly studied the sructure of the computers called digital computers as opposed to analogical computers. They deal with digital information that's to say the continuous and discontinuous analogical and digital information which is the basis of computers classification. This technology gets a final logic in the material and social practical experience of the world. Indeed, " technology implies a reflection on the mode of connection. It is the place of change from the scientific rationality to the rationality of human science. So technology is the science of the control of information (especially scientific information) between men "(4) Nevertheless there is historically a deep and converse connection in an explicit and systematic way between technology and science classification. The most remarkable of these classification is Ampere's. So what's classification ?

 

What's classification ?

In French, the classification supposes a scientific attention and a theorical order, I mean, it is built on a rational knowledge on the classified things and it makes them understand.

Classification is an exemple of logical process used in science or in practice. Classifications are made according to the basic characteristics of the things. Classification emphasizes the similarity and the differences between the things. So, the classification is a cognitive activity whose objective is to divide up the beings according to their similarity. It is a representation of the whole systematic knowledge, especially in science, of a system of divisions and subdivisions. Sometimes, when it is only a matter of organizing things in system, we base our divisions on convinience even if things have no links.

Classification is the share-out of things in several coordinated and subordinated sets. It's the way to organize concepts according to the connections we want to emphasize : connection from gender to species, connection from the whole to the part, genealogical and hierarchical connections and so on ...In the field we meet three main kinds of classification. First, there are statistics, that's to say the automatic classification that allows to draw, thanks to algorithm, several partitions according to the individuals. Then there is the biological classification found by Linne. It is based on the obvious similarity between species that are placed in the same set. But this kind of classification is not very common. Finally there is the classification philosophically speaking.

So, we've considered in detail four main stages in the development of science and knowledge : the immediate intuition stage, the analysis stage, the synthesis stage based on the former analysis (the upset object of knowledge is mentally pieced together in its entity and in its former reality). At the stage the differentietion of knowledge has been doubly characterized : first, according to the material object, it's different from the former science ; then, according to the lower form of the nearest movement thanks to which it is linked to the former science. The characterisrics of a science and the differentiation of its knowledge get objective foundations on each new science. Such a connection can be made because the lower form of the movement enters the upper form just as the  upper form  just as the movement of a molecule enters the physıcal state  of gas ( thermodynamıcs ). So, thıs dialectical unity of the material movement and of the

 

On whıch  you can build a model of the dialectical classification of science and you can give each science an accurate definition that can indicate its place in the new sketch of science classification. For example, the nuclear science is a science you can meet at the edge of its often fleeting experimental facts. This science makes sophisticated materials intervene. The problem posed to the physicians is the following :which model of the nucleus can we propose to explain the observations and the experimentation in keeping with the rules of atomic physics ? If nuclear physics is a scientific branch of atomic physics, so, it's given rise to energy and it's become differentiated from the nuclear chemistry and the other scientific branches of atomic physics. How can we explain the basis of the law of changing from quantity to quality from a science to another as far as the development of the basic contradiction is concerned ? Will this contradiction lead up to a new approach of the classification ? Which model of science classification can we propose to problematical unity of the scientific of knowledge regarding science computer science in keeping with the of nature ? Can the atomic model of classification based on the dialectical (material is both divisible and neither of them) and on the dialectical atomic components, allow us to analyse and to express any historical experience of science in the unity of the scientific organization of knowledge ?In other words, will this approach establish the common foundation of the whole fields of knowledge ? explain the classification classification of dialectical rules the dialectical contradiction undivisible and unity of the

          From this viewpoint we've tackled the basic principles of science classification. There are subjective, objective and comparative principles of science classification. First we've seen the subjective principle in Bacon, Hobbes, d'Alembert, Diderot as well as the rational classification in Comte according to the principle of coordination, the natural classification of science in Andre Marie Ampere. Then we've analysed science classification according to the objective principle in Descartes, Gassendi and the artificial classification in Augustin and Cournot and after that the characteristic of the development of science classification in Germany thanks to Kant, Scheling, Hegel and the logic of the scientific connection in Marx. Finally we've analysed the dialectical classification based on the principle of subordination in F.Engels.

A first thought is based on the positivist thinking of A.Comte that allocates to the "authentic" philosophy a basic function. The positivist philosophy itself is a special science. The connection between philosophy and science is typified in this way : "science has its own philosophy". This connection is due to a definite interpretation of the role of science in culture. Neopositivism as a modern form of positivism, deprives philosophy of its object without considering anything but the consciousness of the reality and the everyday or scientific thought. According to the positivist thinking philosophy is conceivable only because it is devoted to the analysis of language by which the mind can express itself. The philosophical analysis doesn't extend to the objective reality, it is limited to the immediate experience of language. According to the representatives of the logical empirism the phrase "philosophy of science" can apply to the research on philosophical thoughts on science and to the research on the probabilities of science. According to the logical positivism a real scientific philosophy is only conceivable as logical analysis of the scientific language. On one hand this analysis must suppress "metaphysics" (that's to say the traditionnal philosophy) and on the other hand it must analyse the logical structure of the scientific knowledge to make known the empirically verifiable content of the scientific arguments and concepts. The objective of this analysis is to reorganize the scientific knowledge in an "only science" that erases the differences between physical, biological and psychological sciences and so on...

We must notice that the phrase "philosophy of science" is often used to name the ideas, the criterions and the principles used in the scientific processes. It is called "presupposition".

The study of the various scientific presuppositions is the subject of what we call "research on the foundations". This research used scientific methods such as axiomatization, the construction of models and so on... According to some authors (especially those who belong to the strict tradition of neopositivism) the only problems that can be posed about science are about the foundation. According to them the philosophy of science is a synonymous with the research on foundations. Only the adding knowledge is able to embrace the whole intelligible knowledge.

The second thought is based on Hegel's idea of foundation as a category of the system of the dialectical logic.

In Science of Logic Hegel analysed the rules and the basic categories of the dialectical logic and the theory oh knowledge. He developped the first system of the dialectical logic. The only law for Hegel is the law that unifies the law of gravity and the law of the celestial movement. The standardization of all the laws in the universal attraction is set down in itself. The universal attraction only reads that everything is different from everything, understanding thinks it has found a universal law which is able to tell the reality in its universality (5). By the way Hegel makes unification include in the conception of development even if he interpretes in an idealistic way the main three fields of the object of the human knowledge : the natural world (nature), the historical world (society and its history), the spiritual world (human thought). According to Hegel, foundation is a reflexion on essence, that is foundation is the real mediation between essence and oneself. Foundation is first the absolute foundation as basis in general ; but more precisely it is determined as form and material and it is given a content. As a basic connection it becomes external to itself and it goes to the conditional mediation.

Foundation presupposes a condition, but condition presupposes a foundation too. Things in themselves go to the existence thanks to the mediation of the conditional connection. Indeed this "unification in an only conception of development in the natural world as well as in the historical and spiritual world" is the foundation of the marxist thinking. It is composed of the dialectical materialism, the historical materialism, the political economy, the scientific doctrine of the society which has on one hand overturned the idealistic doctrine of Hegel and on the other hand it has developped a new conception of science classification.

 

So, according to Marx, philosophy can be fulfilled only by the abolition of the proletariat. With its triumph, the proletariat is nevertheless disappearing because of the birth of a society with no class and strictly human. For some people "this society is the real appropriation of the human essence by men and for men. It is the men return to themselves that 's to say to social men -it is a total and conscious return which concerns all the wealth of the former development." For the other, it is "a utopia in an anthropological structure of imaginary." But according to Marx this society will put an end to the antagonism between men and nature, between men, between the individual and species, between existence and essence, between negation and assertion of oneself, between liberty and necessity thanks to the application of science to production in the process of the scientific and technological development as a material basis for the realization of the scientific unification. This new conception of science classification developped by Engels is a logical generalization and the reflection of the historical process. Four principles are developped : the principle of the reflection of the nature stages according to which science classification reflects the development of the movement within a peculiar local phenomenon consisting in the successive changes of the various kinds of energy. Then there is the principle of the development of the movement and its substrat, according to which science classification is analysed in a set : first as the reflection of the successive stages of the nature history and

 

then as the natural science history. Then, as the history of the logically generalized and sumarized natural science, that's to say as the continuous development of the peculiar sciences.

So we've studied the various forms of the mechanical, kinetic, potential and electrical energy from a macroscopic and a microscopic angle, and the caloric and biochemical energy and finally the nuclear energy.

With the study of Pauli's principles on the electrons, we've looked at the spectrum of the atoms of valency and we used the vector model for the atoms with two valencied electrons composed of four vectors of orbital momenta 11 and 12 and Spin momenta S 1 and S2. If in a low magnetic field, these vectors combine giving the vector of the total cinetical momentum of the atom J, so, we may find the basic structure of science classification from the elements of the regularity of the atomical spectra of the periodic classification.

This process gets universalized, science becomes a direct transforming and productive force and it exerts an influence on natural science as well as on social science. We replace the vector L (natural science) with the vector S (social science) and the quantum number J (unity of all the sciences). In order to note a better interaction between philosophical science and natural science and between social science and technical science, we'll take into account the basic interactions between the elementary particles of the nuclear physics that on one hand aims at integrating all the scientific knowledge and on the other hand it aims at differentiating the scientific knowledge from techniques.

Considering physics, chemistry and biology as the foundation of the development and the differentation of the scientific branches in computer science, I've examined the peculiar sciences that reflect the forms of the substance and its movement envolving in an inconsistent way. The inconsistent characteristic of nature development is revealed in the splitting of nature with phenomenons that are both linked to natural factors, to the essence of the natural structure and to the nature of men and the society. By the way, we can clearly explain the correlation between physics and chemistry and between the transitive sciences. This correlation directly reflects the connections between the elementary particles and the nucleus and between the atoms and the molecules. The movement of the elementary particles (protons, neutrons, positrons, electrons, eutons, hadrons, mesons, leptons and so on...) is part of the subatomic physics andd the nuclear physics but the molecules forming the bodies are part of the molecular physics (superatomic). So, the way science is  arranged  corresponds to

 

molecules are anything but a complex system and the result of the atomic interaction. As far as physics is concerned, molecules are initial "cells" producing the logical aggregates. From this epistemological viewpoint we respond to the advocates of the metaphysical monist approach praising an only science in the field of computer science. The basic issue of natural science is linked to thedevelopment of the philosophical thought and to the rapid progress of all the branches of the fundamental research that more and more integrates the fundamental natural science, technical science and even social science. This integration makes the transformative function of science increase in the command of the natural forces and it changes science into a direct productive force. Finally it allows social science improving and strenghtening its organic connection with natural science.

 

The place of computer science within our sketch of science classification

parts : natural science

First, I've divided science into two basic and human science.

1. Natural science :

- physics, technique, mathematics - chemistry, technology, biology - earthly science

1) Physics, technique, computing and automation

mathematics : Indeed, I consider as a physical, technological and mathematical science put into the first set of the natural science classification. Then, I've considered the classical science (the positive computer science, the computer science, the systematic and logical science) and the physical and technological

computer analytical computer computer science (the methodological computer science and the applied computer science).

The contemporary computer science is divided into : - the computerized management

- the computerized medicine - the biocomputer science

- the computerized industry - robotics

- telematics

- telecomputers

- the scientific computer and the satellites computer science

- the nuclear computer science and astrophysics

I consider the mathematical science with its subdivisions (mathematics, physics, logical mathematics, applied mathematics and so on...) behind computer science. Finally I consider physics within the set of the physical, technical and mathematical science

1.3 physics roughly speaking

1.4 atomic, subatomic and superatomic physics 1.5 the nuclear physics

1.6 the physics on plasma 1.7 the quanta physics

1.8 the high energy physics 1.9 the basic particles physics 1.10 the contemporary physics (optics, spectroscopy, thermodynamics, the theory of magnetism, electricity, electronics,         radio and radioactivity)

1.11 mechanics (undulatory)

1.12 the physical and technical science of energy

 

1.13 the physical and technical science of mechanics and the control process (cybernetics and the management process)

2) Chemistry, technology, biology : First, I've divided chemistry into two main parts : the organic chemistry and the non organic chemistry. Then, following the analysis made page 323 of this research, I've made the following subdivisions : 2.1 chemistry and technics

2.2 the physical chemistry and the technology of the inorganic substances

2.3 biochemistry, biophysics, the chemistry of the active physiologic compounding (the chemistry of the complex compounding)

2.4 electrochemistry and radiochemistry 2.5 the chemical physics

2.6 the cinetical chemistry 2.7 physiology

2.8 biology and its subdivisions (microbiology, the molecular biology)

           2.9 the science of life: medicine and its scientific branches

3) The earthly science :

3.1 geology

          3.2 geophysics

        3.3 geochemistry

3.4 oceanography

3.5 the physics of the atmosphere20

3.6 the physics of the geography

 

2. Human sciences .

As far as human sciences are concerned we discern dialectics at the head of the philosophical science with several subdivisions : logics, epistemology, esthetics. Then there are history, economy and law and finally literature and linguistics. They are the foundations of our classification. Human sciences are more important than any other science. They are based on the scientific rules that link natural sciences with philosophy and social sciences. Indeed before considering computing and automation as a physical, technical and mathematical science at the head of the first set of the natural sciences classification, it is advisable to tell about the metaphysical monist approach that defends the absolute unity of computer science and denies the division and the diversification of the scientific branches of computer science.

 

The historical approach first takes into account the relative development of computer technology that regards computer as a three dimension "discipline".

The first computer science laid down the great inventions. It was little by main ideas going with the invention being different from cybernetics. The second computer science dates 1970's. It is characterized by the the basic principles and little detached from the of computer but without

from the 1960's and the setting up of the great centralized systems. It was mainly made by opposition to a certain metaphysical cybernetics(7). According to this approach computer science will be automated and it will appear like the field especially dedicated to computers and their using. Thus it has become a technique to handle datawhereas cybernetics used to ponder over the use of techniques in the modern world.The third computer science deals with the diversification of the means and methods, with the grids and the cohabitation between the small and large systems(7). Finally, this historical approach has neither a scientific objective nor a gnoseological or methodological one. Neither it is a basic proof relating to the scientific and technical development.

Lastly, Ph. Dreyfus has divided computer science into 5 main fields. It is a positive approach but it remains in the classical apprehension of computer science :

a) The classical computer science and its subdivisions : 1. the positive computer science

2. the analytical computer science

3. the systematical and logical computer science 4. the physical and technological computer science 5. the methodological computer science

6. the applied computer science

1) The positive or analytical computer science is the nearest branch to the precise sciences. Computer science isn't only diversified according to the object of the research and to the scientific division of labour but also according to its use within the working system.

2) The systematical and logical computer science looks into the architecture of the computerized systems in which the computers with their central processing unit, their memory and their data input and output step.

           This classical and traditional approach of Dreyfus is far from looking at the process of the technological development of the systematical and logical computer science that has given rise to telecomputers, telematics, satellites computers and charts. According to Dreyfus there are connections between the physical and technological computer science and telecomputer

3) The physical and technological computer science is relatively out of date.

4) The methodological computer science refers to the research about programming. It has given rise to another scientific discipline from computer science : the artificial intelligence and the acknowledgement of shapes, the synthesis of voice, the engineering of knowledge.

5) The applied computer science enters the activities of the modern world.

The contemporary computer science is divided into : 1. the computerized management

2. the graphic computer science

3. the computerized medicine

4. the biocomputer science

5. the computerized industry 6. robotics

7. telematics

 8. telecomputers

   9. the scientific computer technology and data processing relating to satellites

10. the nuclear computer science

The rise of the theorical computer science is the main basis of this science on which computer science is rising. We can distinguish the theorical computer science from the practical computer science. The difference comes either from inward in the theorical logic either from outward in the applications. This second stage needs the specification of the phenomenons to set up the rule of the empirical foundation. The third stage is made of hypotheses. The scientific branches of computer technology as concrete aids to verify the hypotheses play a different part from the classical and traditional computer science and they enter into a new stage of the development, changing not only the argument but also the scientific applications of techniques.

As far as the scientific philosophy is concerned computer science is a technological science linked to the physical, technical and mathematical science. There isn't an only computer science but several scientific branches linked both to the chemical, technological and biological sciences and to the earthly and human sciences. It is different from the classical computer science as far as the scientific ethics is concerned. From the dialectical analysis of computer technology we've introduced the classification of techniques that is no longer made according to the products but to the processes. For this classification we've have been based on physics, chemistry and biology as foundations of the diversification of the scientific branches of computer science and their connections within the sketch of the dialectical classification of science. The diversification of the scientific branches of computer science is due to military, economic, political and technological causes.

On one hand the application of data processing to the issue on defense has been of effect on the military strategy. And on the other hand, following their research into the "economic and social effects of the investments towards information" the Japanese have made evident the needs of the next informational society. And the traditional computer science can't provide these needs. So, it has been necessary to think about different computerized systems. So, we go directly from the third generation of computer to the fifth(8).

The diversification is also economic: it deals with the output of hardware and its diversification within the process of production with respect to the needs in the competitive market. Pionner from the local network and Ethernet, the American 3COM, have just effected a great diversification while launching out into office automation. The firm has indeed decided to launch its own work stations especially made for the networks. It deals with a machine based on 80286 (usually it fits the PCs AT) and some suited circuits providing a 1M0 central memory extendible to 4M0 (...) The firm deems its proposal is 30% to 50% cheaper than a classical solution with minicomputers and terminals. 3COM expects to sell 1200 stations in the world for the first year of marketing... But the world market of the local networks has difficulty getting off the ground. Nevertheless for the first 9 months the business has got a turnover of $79m (+76%) for a $8m net profit with an equal increase(9).

This state asserts that the radical change isn't the result of abstract things, on the contrary everything proceeds from the material production and from the exploitation of the main wealth and the development of the labour force. The distinguished characteristic of technique as a commodity isn't independent of the differentiation and the connection of capital and the originality of the diversification as a new technique. But this new technology is in opposition with the rules of the capital development. In the main, the material basis of the production rules the differentiation and the variety of the scientific branches.

The diversification is also technical. "Technology is the science of the scientific and technical rules of the production process"(10) What are these scientific and technical rules ? What is their function within the production process in the technologically advanced societies where the productive human condition, their labour force, their social relation become foreign powers that lead them and crush them ? Men become impotent, got off their social power defining by their international corporality, their so called "private" subjectiveness. So, within the computer process the system of the private appropriation of the collectively produced wealth infallibly leads to the underdevelopment of the main wealth. What will be the results of the scientific and technical revolution in the new computerized society ? How can we resolve the new problems posed by the new situation and to what extent can these universally developped technologies create the conditions for all individuals' growth ? In reality the issue on men liberation is raised within a new conception of mankind. It is both the social and objective world in which we live as concrete individuals with our subjectiveness and the growth of the individuality. This individuality has no meaning except if mankind adapts itself to the whole of the external forces with which we've created our own aim. How can we secure men liberation from the direct production process after the control functions have been managed by automated systems ? The liberation from the routine can both be a way of self-management in life and in the computerized society and a way of changing the productive basis into an automated system. Robotization provides a new content to the process not only to production but also to the social relationship. To what extent can computerization increase imployment, the importance of the cognitive and creative components in labour and to what extent can it improve the division of the scientific labour ? In other words, how can we pose the issue on dialectics in the complete use of the intellectual potential of human being and the computerized system for an harmonious combination between the artificial intellect in its improving and human thought ? How can the unity of dialectics consisting in the division in two of one of them and the learning of these contradictory parts enrich mankind ? How can the unity of dialectics as a method to know consisting in identifying the contradictory tendencies enrich mankind ?(11) As far as the philosophy of the scientific revolutions is concerned the issue on the connection between philosophy and the scientific knowledge is raised from a dialectical analysis and a generalization of natural and human sciences. The methodological analysis of the scientific organization according to the discipline and from science classification is the main structural unity of science but on one hand science classification aims the integration of the scientific knowledge, their union and the discovery of their dialectical connections and on the other hand it aims the differentiation between the scientific and technological knowledge, their branching within the scientific knowledge because it gets several kinds of connections (communication, organization, reflexion and so on...) At the stage we must resolve the scientific issue on the scientific organization and the philosophical foundations of computer science over three main levels.

 

Firstly a critic against the dogmatic position was absolutely useful in the sciencitific history. Then, this critical analysis has led to a new solution for numerous concrete issues on natural science as well as on human and technical sciences. It has clarified the way of the natural science development that embraces human sciences to realize an only science using technique to apply it in the productive system so that all the creative possibilities of technical sciences may be at the disposal of human sciences. In the computerized society the dialectical unity of science within an only science is a reality. This is the foundation of all sciances, the scientific and philosophical synthesis included. Indeed, this dialectical unity of the knowledge integration isn't a melting of disciplines that have lost their identity but their interaction, their mutual enriching. So, we've have been obliged to examine the object of science and especially the object of

computer science as a physical, technical and mathematical science (a technologically unified science) in order to establish a system and a theory on science different from the subjective and objective idealism and to make evident the historical realization of an only science. On one hand the dialectical classification of science is the direct continuation of the French philosophers' science classification : d'Alembert, Diderot, Gassandi, Descartes, Saint Simon, A.Comte, A.M Ampere, A. Cournot. On the other hand we've raised the issue on the unity in the foundation of science classification, considering physics, chemistry and biology as the foundation of the basic sciences. As for computer science it is inseparable from the process of the scientific knowledge. But it seems that philosophy can't play its part in an efficient way within the development of the world scientific conception as well as within the understanding of the philosophical foundation of computer science. Computer science has to emphasize itself among the other sciences that's to say as a cognitive and permanent activity with its own issue.

 

This social and ethical issue gets four main tendencies : first, science as a peculiar kind of human activity looks for the direct subject of this activity : human being. It is revealed when it becomes less and less socially alienated and more and more "humanly measurable" that is correlative with the qualities and needs of human being not only expressed in objective terms and social outcome but also in subjective qualities. This tendency is the result of a growing appreciation of the human activity. In other words science penetrates more pressingly the social life as well as the individual life. It changes it and it initiates rules and some new and unknown structures. It influences greatly the process : human being becomes one of the main subject of the scientific knowledge. Then, this tendency gets a clearer and direct sociologization and humanization of the contemporary science included computer science when it reflects some more general processes linked to the need of a social and ethical regulation of science. So, science determines the creative and cognitive activity but this one gives science a new quality, a humanist trend which is quite important for the society and science itself. Without such a trend science and its application can become a dangerous and diabolical power used to destroy the life on the Earth. The more science penetrates the mystery the mightest are men. But its application involves liabilities. It raises the issue on the foundation of the scientific ethics and by the way on the philosophical liability of scientists. Through this issue we've pondered over the philosophical foundation of computer science.

Then, the need and the scienticity of the science classification history has led us to suggest a new interpretation of the classification. The history of science classification needed such an explaination for two reasons : the first is that without raising the historical issue on the classification and without dealing with the issue on its change and on its manifestations in the various scientific fields and above all in computer science, it is impossible to raise the issue on the unity of the philosophical foundation of computer science. The second reason is that "science history deals with an axiological activity

with the search after truth. It is at the stage of the issue on the method and the conception that the scientific activity such appears. That's why the time of the science history can't be a side thread of the time course"(12). So, on one hand according to us "science and culture consist in getting reality with them without being drowned"(13). And on the other hand we think that science proceeds from the need, the social activities of men with which they can change nature as well as themselves. By the way we can come to the issue on the structure of the scientific knowledge from the angle of the analysis of the conceptual system of science classification or computer science. For example in chemistry and physics, science was formed by itself and its object got specified paralelly to the change in the former notions that were too vague in scientific concepts. We can note some phenomenons in the other basic fields of the scientific knowledge. The process of formation of the basic sciences shows the general structure of the scientific knowledge. The structure can be the following : science roughly speaking as a sphere of activity for all the scientists ; a peculiar branch of science (for example chemistry or physics) ; a narrow sphere of the scientific activity but independent from the scientist.

Finally the value of the existence of over five thousand millions human beings in a world full of fear and contradictions depends on the philosophical answers of our age. These philosophical answers give possibilties to science and to computer science and they multiply discoveries and astonishing inventions that are able to provide a worthy life to all men. Philosophy and science don't lead to the whole negation of the main wealth, that is men themselves, because of a social system, but on the contrary they lead to the truth of the mankind existence that puts an end to all the trouble raised to men condition.

It is the part of science and philosophy. The scientific and technical revolution will release men from the automated production. There are some emancipative forces required to men. The problem is how to manage altogether these forces. This is the historic objective of the new humanism. It coincides with the growth of the competitive individualism as B. Brecht notes it : "climbing, always climbing over someone" whereas everybody can peacefully climb altogether.

I would like to thank Professor Dagognet for being the Chairman. I also thank Professor J.C Beaune who managed my thesis, Professors J.J Wunenburger and Daniel Jacobi for attending my oral presentation.

Ali Kiliç, Dijon on December 19, 1988.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES AND COMPUTING "THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING"

This research is dedicated to the study of the classification of sciences and the philosophical foundations of computing. It concerns its logical, mathematical, linguistic, physical, technological and ethical aspects as a problem of the scientific

philosophy of our century. An attempt is made to define the historical nature of the classification of sciences, to interpret its philosophical foundations and to specify its connections with the scientific and technical revolution from a philosophical and methodological point of view.

 

The dialectic analysis of the scientific knowledge of sciences and the philosophical foundations of computing is carried out on five different levels : the first corresponds with the study of all the processes aiming to develope the atomistic

model of the classification and with the logical, mathematical, linguistic, physical, technological and ethical foundations of computing ; the second corresponds with certain notions of the classification and organization of the scientific system of knowledge up to the fundamental principles of the development of knowledge and sciences; the third corresponds with the historical problematics of the classification of sciences and the fundamental principles of classification ; the fourth, with the classification of computing and the diversification of the scientific branches of computing (contemporary computing, management computing, graphical computing, medical computing, bio-computing, industrial computing, robotics, telematics and remote-access computing, etc.) ; finally the fifth, and highest level, represents the general methodology of the philosophy of scientific revolutions which provides the whole structure of the scientific cognitive activity (artificial intelligence and scientific knowledge) and identifies the main types and mechanisms of the dialectics of the process of human knowledge. Consequently, particular attention is given to the revolution of computing, to society and to the method of treating science which allows to show the content of the Scientific and Technical revolution and to the place computing occupies in the new outline of the dialectic classification of sciences.

In the orientation of the philosophy of scientific revolutions, the sacioet,hical lvgand humanist problematics show four fundamental tendancies. Firstly, science as a particular form of human activity attempts unite with itself the direct

subject of this activity : man. Secondly, this tendancy towards a clearer and more direct sociologization and humanization of contemporary science, including computing, reflects more general processes linked with the need for a socioethical and humanistic regulation of science. Thirdly, the need and the scientificity of the history of the classification of sciences which obliges us to revalorize a new dialectic and materialistic interpretation of the classification. Faurthly, the question of the new civilisation depends on the philosophical response of our time and the question of man's freedom which is posed in a new conception of humanity is both the social and objective world in which we live as concrete individuals, with our subjectivity, and the development of individuality which does not have any sense without the developed humanity that, by our appropriation of all these exterior forces, by which we have created our own end. By which means we can guarantee the liberation of man from the process of direct production following the handing over of the control and monitoring functions to the automatic, autoregulator systems or the liberation from routine work, its transformation into an act of creation in a technology that can become both an automanagement intervention instrument of men in everyday life and in the computerized firm ; it can become both an instrument for transforming productive bases into automatic systems, to the robotiza.tion that gives a new content to the process, not only in production but also in social reponses. The answer can be given by the scientific philosophers.

Dijon, 14th July 1488, Ali KILIC

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1), Jean Dominique Warnier, Homme face a 1'intelligence artificielle Les Editions d'Organisations,Paris,l984,p.19

(2),Jean Claude Beaune, L'Automate et ses Mobiles Flammarion,Sciences Humaines, Paris, 1980,p.19

(3 ),Karl Marx, Manuscrits 1844,Editions Sociales,Paris,1962,p.96

(4),J.C.Beaune, Technologie, PUF,Paris,1972,p.8

(5),Hegel, Phenomenologie de 1'esprit, Tome,I,p.124

(6), Hegel, Science de la Logique, Doctrine de 1'Essence, Tome,I Traduit de 1'alm.par J.P.Labariere et G.Jarzyk,Aubier,Paris,1976,p.91

(7), Philippe Breton, Histoire de 1'informatique,p.127 Editions La Decouverte, Paris, 1987

(8), Florence Antomachi-A.Castiel-E.Seyden, Pense ....Machine Editions C.E.S.T.A.1986,p.144

(9),Informatique Magasine, Revue Pratique des PME-PMI Juin-aout 1987,N°9,p.16

(10), Hirschfeld, Veda technika, Technologie,Prague,1963,p.259

(11),V.LLenine,OEUVRES,Paris-Moscou,T.38,pp.343-344

(12), Georges Canguilhem,

Etudes d'Histoires er de Philosophie des Sciences,Lib.JVrin,Paris,1983,p.19

(13),Fran~ois Dagognet, Memoire Pour 1'Avenir,p.49

(14),Louis de Broglie, Certitudes et Incertitudes de la Science Editions Albin Michel, Paris, 1966,p.295

 

 

 

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